l^~^ 


*^*'Wt/^    ^ 


EDUCATION  DEfX 


\\-'(' 


AJ)VERTISEMENT  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 

The  Publishers  having  determmed  to  stereotype  this  work,  the 
Author,  unwilling  that  it  should  leave  his  hands  and  be  put  into 
permanent  form  until  he  had  given  it  a  careful  revision,  and  made 
it  as  worthy  as  he  could  of  the  favor  with  which  it  has  been  receiv- 
ed, has  made  some  important  improvements  in  the  plan,  the  ar- 
rangement, and  the  materials,  by  which  he  thinks  its  value  as  an 
Aid  to  Composition  is  greatly  enhanced.  The  subject  of  Descrip- 
tion in  particular  has  been  considerably  extended  and  enriched, 
from  sources  not  within  his  reach  in  the  original  preparation  of  the 
volume.  The  examples  and  exercises  in  various  parts  of  the  work 
have  been  much  improved  by  the  rejection  of  those  which  he  had 
borrowed  from  other  works,  and  which  had  long  been  familiar,  and 
the  substitution  of  others  more  valuable,  because  they  are  new. 
He  now  submits  the  work,  in  the  hope  that  it  will  not  be  found  un- 
worthy of  the  continuance  of  the  favor  with  which  it  has  been 
received. 

OnuiRO  street,  Boston,  June  1, 184&. 


AIDS 


TO 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION, 


PREPARED   FOR 


STUDENTS  OF  ALL  GRADES; 


EMBRACING 


BPECIMEN8  AND    EXAMPLES    OF    SCHOOL  AND    COLLEGE   EXESCIiPEli 

AND  MOST  OF   THE   HIGHER  DEPARTMENTS  OF  ENGLISH 

COMPOSITION,   BOTH  EN  PROSE  AND  VERSE. 


By  RICHARD  GREEN  PARKER,  A.  IVL 


•'  Dimidium  facti  qui  cceplt,  habet." 
TWENTIETH    EDITION. 


NEW    YORK: 

HARPER    <k    BROTHERS,   PUBLISHERS, 

185  8. 


■0^ 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1845, 

By  Harper  6c  Brothess, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


EDUCATION  DEPT, 


PREFACE. 


It  would  be  presumptuous  in  any  author  to  attempt  to  give  rules,  or  to 
lay  down  laws,  to  which  aU  the  departments  of  English  Composition 
should  be  subjected.  Genius  cannot  be  fettered,  and  an  original  and 
thinking  mind,  replete  with  its  own  exuberance,  will  often  burst  out  in 
spontaneous  gushings,  and  open  to  itself  new  channels,  through  which 
the  treasures  of  thought  wiU  flow  in  rich  and  rapid  currents.  Rules  and 
suggestions,  however,  are  not  wholly  useless.  They  encourage  the  diffi> 
dent,  and  give  confidence  to  those  whose  want  of  conversance  with  ap 
proved  models  renders  it  necessary  for  them  to  rely  on  foreign  aid.  In 
the  volume  to  which  this  book  is  designed  as  a  sequel,  the  author  has 
attempted  to  render  assistance  in  the  removal  of  the  two  obstacles  which 
beset  the  youthful  writer  in  his  first  attempts  at  composition ;  to  wit,  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  ideas,  or  learning  to  think,  and  that  of  expressing 
them  properly  when  obtained.  There  are  those  who  profess  to  have  been 
benefited  by  the  assistance  therein  afforded.  In  this  volume  he  has  en- 
deavored to  embrace  a  wider  range  in  the  extensive  field  before  him.  He 
candidly  confesses  that  he  is  not  satisfied  with  his  own  labors.  He  would 
have  been  better  contented  to  see  the  task  completed  by  abler  hands.  But 
as  his  labors  have  been  found  useful,  he  has  been  encouraged  to  extend 
them,  in  the  hope  that  they  will  prove  beneficial,  especially  to  those  who 
have  neither  the  leisure  nor  the  inclination  to  seek  in  the  wide  fields  of 
literature  for  other  and  deeper  sources  of  information.  If  the  water  in 
the  bucket  drawn  from  the  well  has  not  the  coolness  and  raciness  of  the 
fountain,  or  the  spring,  it  will  quench  the  thirst  and  cool  the  brow  of  the 
toiler,  in  his  laborious  ascent  of  the  hill  of  science. 

With  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  this  volume  is  to  be  used,  the 
author  has  only  to  say  that  he  has  not  aimed  at  giving  a  regular  and 
systematic  course  of  instruction.  Few  teachers  would  probably  follow 
any  path  that  might  be  pointed  out.  It  has  not.  been  his  aim  to  present 
m  this  volume  a  progressive  course.  Leaving  to  the  judgment  of  those 
ivho  may  use  the  book  the  task  of  selecting  such  exercises  as  may  in 
;heir  opinion  best  promote  the  intellectual  advancement  of  those  whose 
minds  they  are  training,  he  respectfully  submits  the  volume,  in  the  hope 
(hat  it  may  prove  a  useful  auxiliary  in  the  difficult  but  highly  useful  task 
of  Compositition. 

Orange  Street,  Boston,  January  1st,  1844. 


iVt^^Ll^'i^ 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arcinive 

in  2008  witii  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arGliive.org/details/aidstoenglislicomOOparkricli 


CONTENTS 


FAOa 

Preface, iii 

Introduction, iv 

I.     Objects  and  their  parts 1 

II.     Objects,  their  qualities  and  uses, 2 

ni.     Objects,  their  parts,  qualities,  properties,  uses,  and 

appendages, 3 

IV.    Events, 4 

V.     Objects  and  Events, 6 

VI.     Names, 6 

VII.     Simple  Dialogue,  or  Conversation, 7 

Vm.     Words, 15 

IX.     Of  Phrases,  Clauses,  and  Sentences, 17 

X.     Use  of  Words,  Phrases,  and  Clauses,  in  the  expan- 
sion of  an  idea, • •  •  21 

XI.     Of  the  Parts  and  Adjuncts  of  a  Sentence, 22 

XII.     Of  Sentences, 24 

Xin.     Of  Capital  Letters, 25 

XIV.     Of  Punctuation, •; 27 

XV     Derivation  and  Composition  of  Words; 34 

XVI.     Synonymes, • 40 

XVIL     Methods  of  Inversion  and  Transposition, 50 

XVin.     Formation  of  Compound  Sentences,  from  Simple 

ones, 68 

XIX     Of  the  English  Language, •  •  •  61 

XX.     Periphrase,  Periphrasis,  or   Circumlocution,  Eu- 
phemism, and  Antonomasia, -  •  •  •  63 

XXI.     Tautology  and  Catachresis, 69 

XXII.     Pleonasm,  Verbosity,  and  Redundancy, 71 

XXIII.     Variety  of  Expression, 73 

XXIV     Translation,  or  Conversion  of  Poetry  into  Prose,  •  76 

XXV,     Anagrams, 86 

XXVI.     Of  Grammatical  Propriety, 88.  ^ 

XXVII.     On  the  selection  of  Words  and  Expressions,- •••  •  92 

XXVni.     Of  the  Construction  of  Sentences, 93 

XXIX.     Of  Clearness, 94 

XXX.     Of  Unity, 95 

XXXL     Of  the  Strength  of  a  Sentence, 97 

XXXIL     Of  the  Harmony  of  a  Sentence, 99 


CONTENTS. 

rAGB 

XXXni  Onomatopoeia,  or  Sound  adapted  to  the  Sense,  •  104 

XXXIV.  Definition  and  Distinction,  or  Difl'erence, 105 

XXXV.  Analogy, 110 

XXXVI.  Figurative  Language, * 1 1 1 

XXXVII.  Translation  of  Plain  into  Figurative  Language,  115 

KXXVni.  Rules  relating  to  Metaphors, 117 

XXXIX.  ProsopopoRia,  or  Personification, 118 

XL.  Simile,  or  Comparison, 122 

XLL  Antithesis, 125 

Xl.n.  Parallel, 128 

XLIII.  Allegory, 131 

XLIV.  Apologue  and  Fable, 136 

XLV.  Riddle,  or  Enigma, 138 

XLVL  Charade, 139 

XLVTI.  Hyperbole, 141 

XLVITL  Apostrophe, 143 

XLIX.  Interrogation, 144 

L.  Repetition, 144 

LI.  Exclamation, 145 

Ln.  Vision, 146 

Lm.  Climax, 14  7 

LI  V.  Anticlimax, 149 

LV.  Allusion, 149 

LVI.  Irony,   150 

LVri.  Alliteration, 151 

r^VTU.  Paraphrase,  or  Explanation, 153 

LIX.  Outlmes  m  Narrative, 155 

LX.  Connected  Narrative  from  scattered  Facts, 157 

^    LXI.  Narration  expanded, 159 

LXn.  Description, 165 

LXIII.  Narration  and  Description  united, 1 78 

LXIV.  Epistolary  Correspondence,  or  Letter  Writing,  •  183 

LXV.  Regular  'Subjects, 200 

LXVL  Themes, 203 

LXVn.  Abstracts, 211 

'^.XVin.  Essays  from  Abstracts, 213 

LXIX.  Divisions  of  a  Subject, 215 

LXX.  Amplification, 218 

LXXI.  Illustration  of  a  Subject, 219 

LXXH.  On  the  Treatment  of  a  Subject, 222 

LXXm.  Generalization  of  a  Subject, 227 

LXXIV.  Poetry  and  Versification, 230 

LXXV.  Vocabulary  of  Rhymes, 243 

LXXVI.  Epithets, 282 

LXXVII.  Lyric  Poetry, 284 

LXXVTTI.  Pastoral  and  Elegiac  Poetr)-, 289 

LXXTX.  Of  tlie  higher  species  of  Poetry, 294 

I.XXX.  Style, 30C 


CONTENTS. 

LXXXI.  Directions  to  Students  in  revising  and  correct- 
ing their  Compositions, 303 

LXXXII.  Marks  used  by  Printers  in  correcting  the  Press,  310 

LXXXm.  Technical  Terms  relating  to  Books 313 

LXXXIV.  Obituaiy  Notice, 314 

LXXXV.  Critical  Notice, 317 

LXXXVI.  Criticism, 318 

LXXXVn.  Biographical  Sketch, 322 

LXXXVIII.  College  Exercises, 324 

LXXXIX.  Essay,  Treatise,  Tract,  Thesis, 329 

XC.  College  Poem, 336 

XCI.  Dissertation,   338 

XCn.  Disquisition, 341 

XCni.  Discussions, 344 

XCIV.  Disputations, 355 

XC V.  Orations, 361 

XCVI.  Bowdoin  Prize  Dissertation, 381 

XCVII.  On  the  Composition  of  a  Sermon, 390 

XCVIII.  Subjects  for  Composition  of  all  kinds. 399 

XCIX.  List  of  Works  consulted  in  the  preparation  of 

this  Volume, 419 

C.  Index  of  Subjects  noticed  in  this  Work,     420 


INTRODUCTION 


Composition  is  the  art  of  formiiig  Ideas,  and  expressing  them  in  lan- 
guage. Its  most  obvious  divisions,  with  respect  to  the  nature  of  its  sub- 
jects, are  the  Narrative,  the  Descriptive,  the  Didactic,  the  Persuasive,  the 
Pathetic,  and  the  Argumentative.  "With  regard  to  its  form  or  style,  it 
may  be  considered  as  concise  or  diffuse,  as  nervous  or  feeble,  as  dry, 
plain,  neat,  elegant  or  flowery,  as  simple,  or  affected,  as  cold  or  vehement, 
as  barren  or  luxuriant  j  and  its  essential  requisites  are  clearness,  unity, 
strength  and  harmony.  As  it  is  strictly  a  mental  effort,  its  foundation 
must  be  laid  in  a  disciplined  and  cultivated  mind,  in  the  exercise  of  vigor- 
ous thought,  on  reading  and  observation,  and  an  attentive  study  of  the 
meaning  and  the  force  of  language.  The  proper  preparation  for  its  sue 
cessful  performance  should  be  laid  in  a  diligent  attention  to  the  rules  of 
grammar,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  rhetoric,  and  a  suc- 
cessful application  of  the  maxims  of  logic ;  for  logic  must  direct  us  in 
Jie  selection  of  ideas,  rhetoric  must  clothe  them  in  a  suitable  dress,  and 
grammar  must  adapt  the  dress  to  the  peculiar  form  of  the  idea.  In  the 
following  pages  an  attempt  is  made  gradually  to  introduce  the  student  to 
the  several  departments  of  English  composition  by  examples  and  exer- 
cises, with  such  observations  and  illustrations  as  may  appear  to  be  neces- 
sary for  an  intelligent  comprehension  of  its  rules  and  principles.  The  early 
lessons  are  simple  and  easily  performed,  but,  in  the  course  of  the  work, 
suggestions  wiU  be  found,  which,  it  is  thought,  will  be  useful  to  those  by 
whom  composition  is  not  regarded  as  a  task. 

Of  the  importance  of  attention  to  the  subject  of  composition  thus 
much  may  be  said;  that  there  are  few  individuals,  in  any  station  of  life, 
to  whom  ease  and  fluency  in  writing  are  not  valuable  acquisitions.  Ah 
who  are  engaged  in  professional  or  commercial  pursuits,  and  even  the 
hardier  sons  of  labor,  whose  "  bread  is  procured  by  the  sweat  of  their 
brow,"  must  have  correspondence  to  manage,  or  written  statements  to 
furnish,  requiring  at  once  accuracy  and  despatch ;  and  therefore  the  fa- 
cility which  practice  alone  can  impart,  in  the  arrangement  of  theii 
thoughts,  and  a  ready  and  correct  expression  of  them,  is  an  attainment 
exceedingly  desirable.  In  the  language  of  a  late  transatlantic  writer, 
then,  it  may  boldly  be  asserted,  that  "  No  acquu-ement  can  equal  that  ot 
composition  in  giving  a  power  over  the  material  of  thought,  and  an  apt- 


INTKODUCTION. 

ness  in  all  matters  of  arrangement,  of  inquest,  and  of  argumentation." 
"  Writing,"  says  Lord  Bacon,  "  makes  a  correct  man ;"  and  tlie  author  of 
the  Essay  on  Criticism  asserts,  that 

"  True  grace  In  writing  comes  from  art,  not  chanc«, 
As  they  move  easiest  who  have  learnt  to  dance," 

"  He  that  begins  with  the  calf,"  says  Mr.  Locke,  "  may  carry  the  ox , 
but  he,  that  will  go  at  first  to  take  the  ox,  may  so  disable  himself  as  not 
to  be  able  to  take  the  calf  after  that "  On  the  same  principle,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  an  attention  to  the  subject  of  comtiosition  should  be  com- 
menced early  in  Ufe.  Exercises  of  a  simple  character  prepare  the  mind 
for  higher  exertion ;  and  readiness  and  facility  in  the  lower  departments 
of  writing  enable  the  student  to  apply  himself  without  reluctance  to  those 
mightier  efibrts  by  which  the  progress  of  intellectual  culture  is  most  rap- 
idly advanced. 

The  words  of  Horace  may  here  be  recommended  to  partk^ar  attentian : 

'^Sqmite  materiam  qui  scribitis  seqaam 
"Vlribus." 

Or,  in  the  translation  of  Mr.  Francis : 

"  Examine  well,  ye  writers,  weigh  with  care, 
Wliat  Biuts  your  geuius,  what  your  strength  will  beAi. 


A  i  D  N 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


OBJECTS  AIH)  THEIR  PARTS. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  in  writing^composition  is  to  obtain 
ideas.  The  second  is  the  proper  expression  of  the  idea  when 
obtained.  To  acquire  ideas,  it  is  necessary  to  cuUivate  habits 
of  observation ;  to  use  the  eyes  not  only  in  noticing  entire 
objects,  but  also  their  different  parts ;  to  consider  their  quali- 
ties, uses,  operations,  and  effects ;  together  with  their  relation 
to  other  things.  The  mind  employed  in  such  processes  ac- 
quires materials  for  its  own  operations,  and  thoughts  and  ideas 
arise  as  it  were  spontaneously. 

For  the  first  exercise  in  composition,  therefore,  it  is  pro- 
posed that  the  student  be  required  to  enumerate  the  parts  of 
some  visible  object,  according  to  ths  following 

Example. 


A   HOUSE 


Its  parts  are 
The  inside.  The  wainscot, 


The  outside. 
The  doors. 
The  entry, 
The  rooms. 
The  ceiling. 
The  walls, 


The  stairs. 
The  fire  places, 
The  mantel. 
The  chimney. 
The  closets. 
The  kitchen, 
1 


The  parlors  or 

drawing  rooms, 
The  wash  room. 
The  bathing  room, 
The  inner  doors. 
The  wood  shed, 
The  out  buildings. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


Exerciset, 
In  a  similar  manner  enumerate  tl)e  parti  of  the  following  object! . 


A  carriage. 
A  ship. 
A  church. 
A  tree. 
A  map. 
A  horse. 


A  sheep. 

A  bo3k. 

A  cat 

A  kite. 

A  Iiindscape. 

A  cow. 

A  3chooI-rooim. 

A  goat 

A  watch. 

A  d<>g. 

A  clock. 

A  picture. 

n. 


OBJECTS,  THEm  QUALITIES  AND  USES. 

The  parts  of  a  visible  object  having  been  noticed,  thn  nexi 
ttep  to  be  taken  is  tlie  enumeration  of  its  qualities  and  uspp 
according  to  the  following 


Example. 


GLA.8S 


It  is  hard, 

inodorous, 

insoluble, 

solid, 

colorless. 

dry, 

smooth. 

heavy, 

fusible, 

bright, 

uninflammable, 

thick  or  thin, 

transparent, 

durable, 

long, 

brittle, 

stiff, 

short, 

cold. 

inflexible. 

wide, 

tasteless. 

water  proof. 

useful 

Its  uses : 

For  windows  to  admit  light : 

For  spectacles  to  assist  sight : 

For  useful  vessels,  such  as  tumblers,  pitchers,  decanten^ 
wine-gl.'isses,  jelly-glasses,  bottles,  phials,  inkstands,  lamps, 
and  lamp-glass(}«;,  chandeliers,  handles  of  doors  and  drawers, 
cups,  and  ornaments,  such  as  beads,  drops,  prisms« 


Ac 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


Exercises. 

In  the  same  maimer  enumerate  the  qualities  of  the  following  objects . 

Wood. 

Iron. 

Lead. 

Silver. 

Gold. 

A  feather. 

A  pen. 

Water. 

Leather. 

Paper. 


Sugar. 

A  lamp. 

Salt. 

Ivory. 

Sponge. 

A  pin. 

A  desk. 

A  chair. 

Wool. 

A  table. 

Cotton. 

A  penknife. 

Wax. 

A  quill. 

Whalebone. 

An  inkstand. 

A  horn. 

Ice. 

Chalk. 

Snow. 

in. 

OBJECTS,  THEIB  PAETS,  QUALITIES  PROPERTIES,  USE& 
AND  APPENDAGES. 

The  parts,  properties,  and  uses  of  visible  objects  having 
now  been  considered,  the  two  processes  may  be  united,  in  the 
consideration  of  the  parts,  qualities,  properties,  uses  and  ap- 
pendages, as  in  the  following 

Example. 


k  Pen  consists  of  the  quill, 
shaft, 
feather, 
laminae, 

pith, 
nib, 

shoulders, 
skin. 

surfaces, 
groove, 
inside,  aiki 
outside. 

Qualities.  The  quill  is  transparent, 
round  or 
cylindrical, 
hollow, 

smooth, 
bright, 
hard, 
glossy. 

elastic. 
yeUowish^ 
horny, 
tough. 

The  slwft  is  opake, 
angular*, 

white, 
stiiF, 

hard, 
grooved 

The  pith  is  white, 
spongy 

porous, 
elastic. 

soft, 
lighu 

4  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

The  use  of  the  pen  is  to  write  down  what  we  have  seen, 
read,  or  thought,  and  thereby  to  preserve  what  would  prdba- 
bly  soon  be  lost,  if  intrusted  to  the  memory  alone.  What  is 
once  written  can  be  read,  or  preserved  for  future  information, 
and  thereby  we  can  learn  what  our  friends  who  are  absent, 
and  even  those  who  are  dead,  have  seen  or  said. 


Exercises. 

Enumerate  the 

parts,  qualities,  and  uses  of  the 

following  objects 

A  book. 

A  work-box. 

A  knife. 

A  house. 

A  saw. 

A  wing. 

A  tree. 

A  chisel. 

A  fin. 

A  table. 

A  plane. 

The  band. 

A  bureau. 

A  ball. 

The  arm. 

The  contents  of 

a  box. 

A  kite. 

The  foot. 

A  secretary. 

A  dressing-case. 

The  eye. 

A  plate. 

A  sofa. 

The  ear. 

A  barrel. 

A  chair. 

The  nose. 

A  lamp. 

A  candlestick. 

A  lock. 

The  mouth. 

A  key. 

The  human  face 

rv. 

EVENTS. 

The  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  teach  the  learner  to  descnbe, 
in  easy  sentences,  any  circumstances  wliich  happen  to  himself 
and  others. 

He  should  be  directed  to  write  the  incident  just  as  he  would 
relate  it  to  his  parents  or  a  younpj  friend ;  and  after  he  haa 
thus  written  it,  to  revise  it  carefully,  to  see  whether  any  of 
his  words  are  mis-spelt,  and  whether  he  has  used  the  very 
words  which  he  intended  to  use. 

Example, 

On  returning  home  yesterday,  I  saw  a  man  severely  beating 
a  horse.  I  stopped  a  moment  to  ascertain  the  cause ;  and 
perceived  that  one  of  the  wheels  of  the  wagon  had  sunk  deep 


Airs    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  5 

in  the  mire,  and  the  poor  animal  was  exerting  all  his  strength 
to  drag  tbe  heavy  load,  while  the  cruel  driver  was  mercilessly 
beating  the  unfortunate  creature  because  he  could  not  proceed. 

In  a  similar  manner,  the  learner  may  describe  the  following  events: 

The  meeting  of  a  beggar  in  the  street 

The  overturn  of  a  carriage. 

The  passing  of  a  procession. 

The  sailing  of  a  ship. 

The  catching  of  a  fish. 

The  capture  of  a  bird. 

The  raising  of  a  kite. 

Afire. 

The  raising  of  a  building. 


V. 

OBJECTS  AND  EVENTS. 

The  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  accustom  the  learner  to  com- 
bine the  results  of  the  preceding  lessons. 

The  same  directions  should  be  given  to  him  as  are  present- 
ed in  the  last  lesson ;  and  it  will  be  proper  to  enforce  the 
directions  with  regard  to  the  spelling,  and  the  proper  use  of 
words,  in  every  exercise. 

Mxamph. 

As  my  brother  was  riding  in  the  country,  he  saw  a  beauti 
ful,  large  house,  painted  white,  with  green  blinds.  In  the 
front  of  the  house  was  a  small  flower-garden,  and  the  briglit 
tulips,  all  in  full  bloom,  presented  a  brilliant  show.  The  rose 
bushes  were  not  yet  in  flower  ;  but  the  lily  of  the  valley  was 
dropping  its  modest  head,  while  it  perfumed  the  air  with  its 
delicious  fragrance.  At  the  back  of  the  house  were  a  num- 
ber of  fruit  trees,  in  full  blossom,  among  which  was  the  peach 
tree,  with  its  beautiful  pink  flowers.  Some  boys  were  seen 
1* 


6  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

clustering  around  a  willow  near  the  hrooik,  busily  engaged 
with  their  knives.  One  was  cuttinp  the  small  leaves  and 
scions  from  a  large  b'rancli,  which  he  liad  just  taken  from  the 
tree  for  a  whip,  while  another  was  bu.sily  engaged  in  making 
a  whistle.  As  my  brother  approaclu-.d  the  house,  the  boys, 
mistaking  him  for  the  owner,  immediately  scampered  away ; 
some  hiding  themselves  among  the  bushes,  while  the  more  ac- 
tive leaped  over  the  high  stone  wall,  to  escape  being  caught. 
It  appeared  that  these  boys  were  truants  from  a  neighboiing 
6chool4iouse,  and  the  little  rogues  were  feaiful,  not  only  of 
being  caught  in  trespassing  upon  private  ground,  but  likewise 
lest  they  should  be  carried  into  the  presence  of  their  master, 
to  be  corrected  for  playing  the  truant. 

Mxercises. 

In  the  same  manner  the  learner  may  describe  the  following  objects  and 

events ; 

Boys  fishing  from  a  bridge. 

Girls  dressing  tlieir  dolls. 

A  tree  blown  down  by  a  tempest. 

Boy  driving  cows  or  sheep  to  pasture. 

Horses  running  at  large. 

A  dog,  in  a  state  of  madness,  biting  pa«?scngers  in  the  street 

A  lion,  elcilliant,  or  tiger  broken  loose  from  its  cage. 

A  menagerie,  with  the  postures  and  employments  of  the  wild  anonals. 

A  museum,  with  dancing  puppets. 

A  public  concert. 

An  exhibition  of  paintings  and  statuary. 


VI. 

NAMES. 


The  object  of  this  exercise  on  names,  is  to  prepare  the 
student  for  a  f  tnre  exercise  on  definitions.  How  it  is  to  be 
performed  will  be  readily  seen  from  the  following 

Examples. 

"What  is  the  name  which  is  applied  to  false  or  undeserved 
praise? 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  7 

Answer.     Flattery. 

By  what  name  do  we  call  the  delaying  of  that  which  we 
know  cannot  be  finally  escaped  or  avoided  ? 

Answer.     Procrastination. 

By  what  name  do  we  designate  that  animal  which  has  two 
horns,  a  long  tail,  and  cloven  feet,  and  that  affords  beef,  butter, 
and  cheese  ? 

Answer.     The  Cow. 

By  what  name  do  we  designate  the  restraint  ol  appetite 
and  passion?  ^ 

Answer.     Temperance.  ' 

Exercises. 

What  name  is  given  to  the  reverence  of  God  1 

What  name  is  applied  to  an  effort  of  genius  and  art,  producing  an 
association  of  exalted  and  brilliant  ideas  in  language  harmoniously 
arranged  'i 

A  general  coincident  feeling  between  two  persons  ? 

Habitual  inactivity  both  of  mind  and  body '? 

That  tranquil  state  of  mind  in  which  the  agitations  of  anxiety  and  dis 
appointment  are  no  longer  felt  'i 

That  state  of  mind  which  suffers  no  dismay  from  danger  ? 

The  dissolution  of  corporeal  existence  1 

The  resolution  to  persist  in  any  undertaking  that  has  been  commenced ' 

The  time  after  sunset  1 

That  God  is  present  every  where,  and  that  he  knows  all  things  "^ 

A  habit  of  being  pleased  1 


VII. 

SIMPLE  DIALOGUE,  OR  CONVERSATION. 

Young  persons  are  seldom  at  a  loss  for  topics  of  conversa- 
tion, when  left  unrestrained  to  themselves.  But  as  soon  as 
they  are  requii-ed  to  write  what  is  called  a  composition,  they 
feel  at  a  loss  what  to  say.  This  arises  from  no  inability  to 
form  ideas,  nor  from  want  of  words  to  express  them  ;  but 
rather  from  a  vague  apprehension  that  something  is  required 
of  them,  which  they  have  never  done  before  ;  and  to  which 
they  know  not  how  to  address  themselves.  The  cultivation 
of  the  habits  of  observation,  to  which  allusion  has  already 


8  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

been  made  in  the  first  exercise,  will  help  them  wholly  out  o. 
the  difficulty  ;  especially,  if  they  be  informed,  that  the  art  of 
writing  is  nothing  more  than  the  art  of  expressing  with  the 
hand,  in  signs  which  present  themselves  to  the  eye,  that, 
which  with  their  voice,  they  convey  to  the  ears  of  others. 
In  other  words,  that  in  their  early  attempts  at  writing  compo- 
sition, they  may  write  down  in  letters,  what  they  would  say 
to  their  companions  in  their  common  conversations. 

To  cultivate  the  habits  of  observation,  the  following  dia- 
logue, from  the  pen  of  Dr.  Aikin,  is  presented;  with  the 
recommendation  that  it  be  read  to  the  young  student,  or  that 
he  be  required  to  read  it  carefully,  in  order  that  he  may 
learn  to  use  his  eyes  aright,  and  attentively  observe  what 
passes  before  them. 

THE  TUTOR  AND  HIS  PUPILS. 

Eyes  and  no  Eyes ;  or^  the  Art  of  Seeing. 

"  Well,  Robert,  where  have  you  been  walking  this  afternoon  ?  "  said  a 
tutor  to  one  of  his  pupils,  at  the  close  of  a  holiday. 

RdbPTt.  I  have  been  to  Broom-heath,  and  so  round  by  the  windmill 
upon  Camp-mount,  and  home  throusjh  the  meadows  by  tlie  river  side. 

Tidor.    Well,  that  is  a  pleasant  round. 

Robert.  I  thought  it  very  dull,  Sir ;  I  scarcely  met  with  a  single  per 
Bon.    I  would  much  rather  have  gone  along  the  turnpike  road. 

Tutor.  Wliy,  if  seeing  men  and  horses  was  your  object,  you  would, 
indeed,  have  been  better  entertained  on  the  high-road.  But  did  you 
see  William  ? 

Robert..  We  set  out  together,  but  he  lagged  behind  in  the  lane,  so  I 
walked  on  and  left  him. 

Ttitor.    That  was  a  pity.    He  would  have  been  company  for  you. 

Robert.  O,  he  is  so  tedious,  always  stopping  to  look  at  this  tiling  ano 
that !    I  would  rather  walk  alone.    I  dare  say  he  is  not  got  home  yet 

'I'utor.    Here  he  comes.     Well,  William,  where  have  you  l)ecn? 

William.  O,  the  plcasantest  walk  !  I  went  all  over  Broom-heath,  and 
BO  up  to  the  mill  at  the  top  of  the  hill,  and  then  down  among  the  grcen 
meadows  by  the  side  of  the  river. 

Tutor.  Why,  that  is  just  the  round  Robert  has  been  taking,  and  he 
complains  of  its  dulness,  and  prefers  the  high-road. 

William.  I  wonder  at  that.  I  am  sure  I  hardly  took  a  step  that  did 
uot  delight  me,  and  I  have  brought  home  my  handkerchief  full  of  curiosities 

Tutor.  Suppose,  then,  you  give  us  an  account  of  what  amused  yon 
BO  much.    I  fancy  it  will  be  as  new  to  Robert  as  to  mc- 

William,  I  will  do  it  readily.  The  lane  leading  to  the  heath,  yon 
know,  is  close  and  sandy,  so  I  did  not  mind  it  much,  but  made  the  best  of 
ray  way.  However,  I  spied  a  curious  thing  enough  in  the  hedge.  Il 
was  an  old  crab-tree,  out  of  which  grew  a  great  bunch  of  something  green 
quite  dilFerent  from  the  tree  itself    Here  i«  a  branch  cf  it 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  9 

3Wor.  Ah !  this  is  a  mis  ietoe,  a  plant  of  great  fame  for  the  usa  made 
of  it  by  the  Druids  of  old  it  their  religious  rites  and  incantations.  It 
bears  a  veiy  slimy  white  berry,  of  which  bii-dlirae  may  be  made,  wnence 
the  Latin  name,  Viscus.  It  is  one  of  those  plants  which  do  not  grow  in 
the  ground  by  a  root  of  their  own,  but  fix  themselves  upon  other  plants ; 
whence  they  have  been  humorously  styled  parasitical^  as  being  hangers 
on,  or  dependents.  It  was  the  mistletoe  of  the  oak  that  the  Druids  par- 
ticularly honored. 

William.  A  little  farther  on,  I  saw  a  green  woodpecker  fly  to  a  tree 
and  run  up  the  trunk  like  a  cat. 

Tutor.  That  was  to  seek  for  insects  in  the  bark,  on  which  they  live 
They  bore  holes  with  their  strong  bills  for  that  purpose,  and  do  much 
damage  to  the  trees  by  it. 

William.    What  beautiful  birds  they  are  ! 

Tutor.  Yes ;  they  have  been  calleJ,  from  their  color  and  size,  the  Eng- 
lish parrot. 

William.  When  I  got  upon  the  open  heath,  how  charming  it  was  1 
The  air  seemed  so  fresh,  and  the  prospect  on  every  side  so  free  and  un 
bounded !  Then  it  was  all  covered  with  gay  flowers,  many  of  Avhich  1 
had  never  observed  before.  There  were  at  least  three  kinds  of  heath, 
(I  have  got  them  in  my  handkerchief  here,)  and  gorse,  and  broom,  and 
bell-flower,  and  many  others  of  all  colors,  of  which  I  will  beg  you  pre 
sently  to  tell  me  the  names. 

Tutor.     That  I  will,  readily. 

William.  I  saw,  too,  several  birds  that  were  new  to  me.  There  was 
a  pretty  grayish  one,  of  the  size  of  a  lark,  that  was  hopping  about  some 
great  stones ;  and  when  he  flew,  he  showed  a  great  deal  of  white  above 
his  tail. 

Tutor.  That  was  a  wheat-ear.  They  are  reckoned  very  delicious 
birds  to  eat,  and  frequent  the  open  downs  in  Sussex,  and  some  other 
counties,  in  great  numbers. 

William.  There  was  a  flock  of  lapwings  upon  a  marshy  part  of  the 
heath,  that  amused  me  much.  As  I  came  near  them,  some  of  them  kept 
flying  round  and  round,  just  over  my  head,  and  crying  pe^oit  so  distinct- 
ly, one  might  almost  fancy  they  spoke.  I  thought  I  should  have  caught 
one  of  them,  for  he  flew  as  if  one  of  his  wings  was  broken,  and  often 
tumbled  close  to  the  ground ;  but,  as  I  came  near,  he  always  contrived  to 
get  a\\  ay. 

Tutor.  Ha,  ha!  you  were  finely  taken  in,  then!  This  was  all  an 
artifice  of  the  bird's,  to  entice  you  away  from  its  nest ;  for  they  build  upon 
the  bare  ground,  and  their  nests  would  easily  be  observed,  did  they  not 
draw  off^  the  attention  of  intruders,  by  their  loud  cries  and  counterfeit 
lameness. 

William.  I  wish  I  had  known  that,  for  he  led  me  a  long  chase,  often 
over  shoes  in  water.  However,  it  was  the  cause  of  my  falling  in  with  an 
old  man  and  a  bo/,  who  were  cutting  and  piling  up  turf  for  fuel ;  and  I 
had  a  good  deal  of  talk  with  them,  about  the  manner  of  preparing  the 
turf,  and  the  price  it  sells  at  They  gave  me,  too,  a  creature  I  never  saw 
before  —  a  young  viper,  which  they  had  just  killed,  together  with  its  dam. 
I  have  seen  several  common  snakes,  but  this  is  thicker  in  proportion,  and 
of  a  darker  color  than  they  are. 

Tdor.  True.  Vipers  frequent  those  turfy,  boggy  grounds  prett;? 
much,  ani  I  have  known  several  turf -cutters  bitten  by  them. 


10  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

William.    They  are  very  venomoas,  are  they  not  ? 

Tutor.  P'pough  so  to  make  their  wounds  paiuful  and  dangerons,  thougb 
thev  seldon  prove  fatal. 

H^illiam.  Well  —  I  then  took  my  course  up  to  the  windmill  on  the 
mount.  I  elJ  nbcd  up  the  steps  of  the  mill,  in  order  to  get  a  better  view 
of  the  couutry  round.  What  an  extensive  prosjKJCt !  I  counted  fifteen 
churcii  steeples ;  and  I  saw  several  gentlemen's  houses  peeping  out  from 
the  midst  of  green  woods  and  plantations;^  and  I  could  trace  the  wind- 
ings of  the  river  all  along  the  low  grounds,  till  it  was  lost  behind  a  ridge 
of  hills.    P.ut  I  '11  tell  vou  what  I  mean  to  do,  if  jou  will  give  me  leave. 

Tutor.    What  is  that  ? 

William.  I  will  go  again,  and  take  with  me  Gary's  country  map,  by 
which  I  shall  probably  be  able  to  make  out  most  of  the  places. 

2\tor.  You  shall  have  it,  and  I  will  go  with  you,  and  take  my  pocket 
spying-glass. 

William.  I  shall  be  very  glad  of  that.  Well  —  a  thought  struck  me, 
that,  as  tne  hill  is  called  Camp-viount,  there  might,  probably,  be  some  re- 
mains of  ditches  and  mounds,  with  which  I  have  read  that  camps  were 
surrounded.  And  I  really  believe  I  discovered  something  of  that  sort 
running  round  one  side  of  the  mount. 

lutirr.  Very  likely  you  might.  I  know  antiquaries  have  described 
such  remains  as  existing  there,  which  some  suppose  to  be  Roman,  others 
Danish.     We  will  examine  them  further  when  we  go. 

William.  From  the  hill  I  went  straight  down  to  the  meadows  below, 
and  walked  on  the  side  of  a  brook  that  runs  into  the  river.  It  was  all 
bordered  with  reeds,  and  flags,  and  tall  flowering  plants,  quite  diftc.cnt 
from  those  I  had  seen  on  the  heath.  As  I  was  getting  down  the  bank  to 
reach  one  of  them,  I  heard  something  plunge  into  the  water  near  me.  It 
was  a  large  water-rat,  and  I  sr.w  it  swim  over  to  the  other  sioe,  and  go 
into  its  hole.  There  were  a  great  many  dragon-flies  all  al)Out  the  stream. 
I  caught  one  of  the  finest,  and  have  got  him  here  in  a  leaf.  But  how  I 
longed  to  catch  a  bird  that  I  saw  hovering  over  the  water,  and  e'cry  now 
and  then  darting  down  into  it!  It  was  all  over  a  mixture  of  the  most 
beautiful  green  and  blue,  with  some  orange  color.  It  was  somewhat  less 
than  a  thrush,  and  had  a  large  head  and  bill,  and  a  short  tail. 

Tutor.  I  can  tell  you  what  tliatbird  was  —  a  kingfl>her,  the  celebrated 
halcyon  of  the  ancients,  about  which  so  many  tales  arc  told.  It  lives  on 
fish,  which  it  catches  in  the  manner  you  saw.  It  builds  in  holes  in  tlie 
hanks ;  and  is  a  shy,  retired  bird,  never  to  be  seen  far  from  the  stream 
where  it  inhabits. 

William.  I  must  try  lo  get  another  sight  at  him,  for  I  never  saw  a 
bird  that  pleased  me  so  much.  Well,  I  followed  this  little  brook,  till  it 
entered  the  river,  and  then  took  the  path  that  runs  along  the  bank.  On 
the  opposite  side,  I  ol>served  several  little  birds  running  along  the  shore, 
and  making  a  piping  noise.  They  were  brown  and  white  and  al>out  as 
big  as  a  snipe. 

Tifor.  I  fiuf  pose  they  were  sand-pipers,  one  of  the  numerous  family 
of  birds  tliat  get  their  living  by  wading  among  the  shallows,  and  picking 
op'  worms  and  insects. 

William.  'J'hcre  were  a  great  many  swallows,  too,  sporting  upon  the 
surface  of  the  water,  that  entertained  me  with  their  motions.  Sometimes 
they  dashed  into  the  stream ;  sometimes  they  i)ui-su(?d  ^^  another  so 
quickly,  that  the  eye  could  scarcely  follow  them.    In  one  place,  where  t 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  11 

high,  steep  sand-bank  rose  directly  above  the  river,  I  observed  many  of 
chem  go  in  and  out  of  holes,  with  which  the  bank  was  bored  full. 

Tutor.  Those  were  sand-martins,  the  smallest  of  our  four  species  of 
swallows.  They  are  of  a  mouse-color  above,  and  white  beneath.  They 
make  their  nests  and  bring  up  their  young  in  these  holes,  which  run  a 
great  depth,  and  by  their  situation  are  secure  from  all  plunderers. 

William.  A  little  farther,  I  saw  a  man  in  a  boat,  who  was  catching 
eels  in  an  odd  way.  He  had  a  long  pole  with  broad  iron  prongs  at  the 
end,  just  like  Neptune's  trident,  only  there  were  five  instead  of  three. 
This  he  pushed  straight  do^vn  into  the  mud,  in  the  deepest  parts  of  the 
river,  and  fetched  up  the  eels  sticking  between  the  prongs. 

Tntcr.  I  have  seen  this  method.  It  is  called  spearing  of  eels. 
William.  While  I  was  looking  at  him,  a  heron  came  flying  over  my 
head,  with  his  large  flapping  wings.  He  alighted  at  the  next  turn  of  the 
river,  and  I  crept  softly  behind  the  bank  to  watch  his  motions.  He  had 
waded  into  the  water  as  far  as  his  long  legs  would  cany  him,  and  was 
standing  with  his  neck  dra^vn  in,  looking  intently  on  the  stream.  Pres- 
ently he  darted  his  long  bill  as  quick  as  lightning  into  the  water,  and 
drew  out  a  fish,  which  he  swallowed.  I  saw  him  catch  another  in  the 
same  manner.  He  then  took  alarm  at  some  noise  I  made,  and  flew 
»iwav  slowly  to  a  wood  at  some  distance,  Avhei-e  he  settled. 

Tutor.  Probably  his  nest  was  there,  for  herons  build  upon  the  loftiest 
tree  they  can  find,' and  sometimes  in  society  together,  like  rooks.  For- 
merly, when  these  birds  were  valued  for  the  amusement  of  hawking, 
many  gentlemen  had  their  heronries,  and  a  few  are  still  remaining. 
William.  I  think  they  are  the  largest  wild  birds  we  have. 
Tutor.  They  are  of  great  length  and  spread  of  wing,  but  their  bodies 
are  comparatively  small. 

William.  I  then  turned  homeward  across  the  meadows,  where  I  stop 
ped  awhile  to  look  at  a  large  flock  of  starlings,  which  kept  flying  about  at 
no  great  distance.  I  could  not  tell,  at  first,  what  to  make  of  them ;  for 
they  rose  all  together  from  the  ground,  as  thick  as  a  swarm  of  bees,  and 
formed  themselves  into  a  kind  of  black  cloud,  hovering  over  the  field. 
After  taking  a  short  round,  they  settled  again,  and  presently  rose  again 
in  the  same  manner.    I  dare  say  there  were  hundreds  of  them. 

Tutor.  Perhaps  so ;  for,  in  the  fenny  counties,  their  flocks  are  so 
numerous,  as  to  break  down  whole  acres  of  reeds  by  settling  on  them. 
This  disposition  of  starlings  to  fly  in  close  swarms  was  remarked  even 
by  Homer,  who  compares  the  foe  flying  from  one  of  his  heroes,  to  a  cloud 
of  starlings  retiring  dismayed  at  the  approach  of  the  hawk. 

William.    After  I  had  "^ left  the  meadows,  I  crossed  the  cornfields  in 
the  way  to  our  house,  and  passed  close  by  a  deep  marl-pit.    Looking, 
into  it,  I  saw  in  one  of  the  sides  a  cluster  of  what  I  took  to  be  shells ;  and, 
upon  going  d()A\Ti,  I  picked  up  a  clod  of  marl  which  was  quite  full  of 
i^em ;  but  how  sea-shells  could  get  there  I  cannot  imagine. 

Tutor.  I  do  not  wonder  at  your  surprise,  since  many  philosophers 
have  been  much  perplexed  to  account  for  the  same  appearance.  It  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  great  quantities  of  shells  and  relics  of  marine  animals 
«5ven  in  the  bowels  of  high  mountains  very  remote  from  the  sea. 

William  I  got  to  the  high  field  next  to  our  house  just  as  the  sun  was 
setting,  and  I  stood  looking-  at  it  till  it  was  quite  lost.  What  a  glorious 
«ight !  The  clouds  were,  tinged  with  purple  and  crimson,  and  yellow  of 
all  shades  and  hues,  and  the  clear  sky  varied  from  blue  to  a  fine  green  at 


12  AIDS    TO    ENGLI8U    COMPOSITION. 

the  horizon.  But  how  large  the  sun  appears,  just  as  it  sets !  1  think  it 
seems  twice  as  big  as  when  it  is  over  head. 

Tutor.  It  does  so ;  and  you  may  probably  have  observed  the  same 
apparent  enlargement  of  the  moon  at  its  rising. 

William.    I  have ;  but  pray  what  is  the  reason  of  this  ? 

Tutor.  It  is  an  optical  deception,  depending  upon  principles  which  I 
cannot  well  explain  to  you,  till  you  know  more  of  tha  t  branch  of  science. 
But  what  a  number  of  new  ideas  this  afternoon's  waU  has  afforded  you ! 
I  do  not  wonder  that  you  found  it  amusing ;  it  has  been  very  insti-uctive, 
too.     Did  you  see  nothing  of  all  these  sights,  Kobert  ? 

Robert.  I  saw  some  of  them,  but  I  did  not  take  particular  noti«^  of 
them. 

Tutor.     "NVhy  not  ? 

Robert.  I  do  not  know.  I  did  not  care  about  them ;  and  I  made  the 
best  of  my  way  home. 

Tutor.  That  would  have  been  right,  if  you  had  been  sent  on  a  mes- 
sage ;  but,  as  you  only  walked  for  amusement,  it  would  have  been  i^Hser 
to  have  sought  out  as  many  sources  of  it  as  possible.  But  so  it  is ;  one 
man  walks  through  the  world  with  bis  eves  open,  and  another  with  them 
shut;  and  upon  this  ilitFcrence  depends  all  the  superiority  of  knowledge 
the  one  acquires  above  the  other.  I  have  known  sailors  who  had  Ijeen  in 
all  the  quarters  of  the  world,  and  could  tell  you  nothing  but  the  signs  of 
the  tippling-houscs  they  frequented  in  the  different  ports,  and  the  price 
and  quality  of  the  liquor.  On  the  other  hand,  a  Franklin  could  not  cross 
the  Channel  without  making  some  observations  useful  to  mankind.  WHiile 
many  a  vacant,  thoughtless  youth,  is  whirled  throughout  Europ*;,  without 
gaining  a  single  idea  worth  crossing  a  street  for ;  the  observing  eye  and 
inquiring  mind  find  matter  of  improvement  and  delight,  in  every  ramble 
in  town  and  country.  Do  you,  then,  William,  continue  to  make  use  of 
your  eyes ;  and  you,  Robert,  learn  that  eyes  were  given  you  to  use. 

The  preceding  dialogue,  if  it  has  been  attentively  read,  will 
probably  enable  the  young  student  to  write  simple  di«Uogues 
or  conversations,  similar  to  that  presented  in  the  following 

Example, 

DIALOGUE  BETWEEN  CHARLES  AND  HENRT,  ABOUT  DOGS. 

Charles.  Whose  dog  is  that,  Henry,  which  I  saw  in  your 
yard  yesterday  ? 

Henry.  He  belongs  to  my  uncle,  who  bought  him,  when 
he  was  very  young,  of  a  poor  boy  in  the  street.  Tlie  lx)y 
appeared  very  destitute,  and  uncle  bought  him  nither  out  of 
compassion  for  the  boy,  than  because  he  wanted  the  dog. 

Charles.     Is  he  good  for  any  thing,  —  ha^  he  been  trained.' 

Henri/.  O  yes;  he  is  a  very  valuable  aninuii.  Unci*" 
would  not  sell  him  at  any  price.     lie  is  an  exCfettent  wate" 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  18 

dog,  and  knows  more  than  many  boys  of  his  own  age>  The 
other  morning  he  was  sitting  in  a  chair  at  the  window,  from 
which  he  had  been  accustomed  to  look  at  the  boys,  as  they 
were  playing  in  the  street,  and,  finding  that  he  could  not  see 
tlirough  the  window,  on  account  of  the  frost  on  the  glass,  he 
applied  his  warm  tongue  to  one  of  the  panes,  and,  licking  the 
frost  from  the  glass,  attempted  to  look  out ;  but,  the  spot 
which  he  had  cleared  being  only  large  enough  to  admit  one 
eye,  he  immediately  made  another,  in  the  same  manner,  for 
t}\e  other  eye,  by  which  he  was  enabled  to  enjoy  the  sight  as 
inual. 

Charles.  That  was  very  remarkable.  But  your  uncle  did 
not  teach  him  to  do  that. 

Henry.  No ;  that  was  rather  an  operation  of  instinct  than 
of  training.  But  he  will  carry  bundles,  stand  on  two  legs, 
find  articles  that  are  hidden,  fetch  things  from  the  water,  and 
is  also  well  trained  for  hunting. 

Charles.     He  is  a  water-dog,  then,  is  he  not? 

Henry.  O  yes.  He  is  very  fond  of  the  water  himself, 
but  will  not  allow  others  to  go  into  it.  Uncle  has  a  fine  situ- 
ation at  Nahant,  on  the  water's  edge,  and  many  of  his  friends 
go  there  to  bathe.  But  uncle  is  obligp*^  to  tie  up  Gnido,  the 
dog,  when  any  one  wishes  to  bathe ;  for  the  animal  will  not 
allow  any  one  to  go  into  the  water,  if  he  can  prevent  it. 

Charles.  That  is  very  selfish  in  him.  Wliat  do  you  sup- 
pose is  the  reason  that  he  is  unwilling  that  others  should  en- 
ioy  a  thing,  of  which,  you  say,  he  is  himself  so  very  fond  ? 

Henry.  O,  he  has  a  good  reason  for  that,  as  well  as  for 
every  thing  else  he  does.  The  reason  is,  that,  one  day,  my 
little  brother,  George,  was  standing  on  a  kind  of  wharf,  built 
of  stones,  near  the  bathing  place,  and,  happening  to  stoop 
over  too  far  to  look  at  some  eels,  that  were  gliding  through 
the  water  below,  he  lost  his  balance  and  fell  in.  Nobody  was 
near  but  Guido,  and  he  immediatety  jumped  into  the  water, 
and  held  George  up  by  the  collar  tUl  some  one  came  to  his 
assistance.  When  the  servant  man,  John,  came  to  help 
George  out  of  the  water,  Guido  had  nearly  dragged  him  to 
the  shore ;  but  he  found  it  rather  hard  work,  for  George  is 
very  fleshy,  and,  of  course,  quite  heavy ;  and,  although  Guido 
has  a  good  opinion  of  himself,  and  doubts  not  his  ability 
to  drag  any  one  else  out  of  the  water,  yet  he  reasons  verj 
2 


14  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Boundly,  and  thinks  it  much  less  trouble  to  prevent  peopio 
from  going  into  the  water,  than  to  drag  them  out  when  they 
have  got  in. 

Charles.  No  wonder  that  your  uncle  values  him ;  he  is 
certainly  a  very  valuable  dog. 

Henry.  O,  I  could  tell  you  a  hundred  stories  about  him, 
which  would  surprise  you.  The  other  day,  George  brought 
home  a  bundle  from  Miss  Farrar's,  for  my  sister  Caroline, 
which  he  threw  down  on  a  chair  in  the  entry,  and  then  ran 
off  to  play.  Caroline  was  in  her  chamber,  and,  hearing 
George  come  in,  spote  to  him  from  her  room,  not  knowing 
that  he  had  gone  out,  and  requested  him  to  bring  it  up  stairs. 
Guido  was  lying  on  the  rug  by  the  lire  in  the  parlor,  and, 
hearing  Caroline  call  for  the  bundle,  immediately  jumped  up, 
and,  taking  the  bundle  in  his  mouth,  carried  it  up  stairs  and 
dropped  it  at  Caroline's  feet. 

Charles.  I  should  be  very  happy  to  have  such  a  dog,  but 
mother  is  so  afraid  of  a  dog's  running  mad  and  biting  us  chil- 
dren, that  she  will  not  allow  us  to  keep  one. 

Henry.  Father  says,  that  there  is  no  fear  of  a  dog's  nm- 
ning  mad,  if  he  has  plenty  of  water.  He  says,  that  the 
reason  that  we  so  seldom  hear  of  a  dog's  running  mad  here  in 
Boston  is,  because  water  is  plenty  here,  and  dogs  can  always 
get  at  it,  if  they  have  once  found  their  way  to  the  Frog  Pond 
on  the  Common. 

Charles.  What  is  the  name  of  that  disease  which  people 
have  who  are  bitten  by  mad  dogs  ? 

Henry.  It  is  called  hydroj)hob{a,  which  is  a  Greek  word, 
and  means  "  fear  of  water."  Dogs,  when  they  are  mad,  can 
not  bear  the  sight  of  water ;  they  will  not  drink  ;  and  there- 
fore, whenever  a  dog  will  drink,  you  may  be  sure  that  he  is 
not  mad.  When  a  person  is  bitten  by  a  mad,  or  rabid  ani- 
mal, he  expresses  the  same  dread  of  water,  and  hence  the 
disease  is  called,  as  I  said,  hydrophobia. 

diaries.  I  thank  you,  IIe!iry,  for  giving  me  all  this  infor- 
mation. I  shall  tell  it  all  to  motlier,  and  as  T  have  oHen 
Iienrd  her  say,  that  your  father  is  a  very  sensible  man,  per 
haps  she  may  overcome  her  fear  of  hydryphobia,  and  allow 
brother  James  and  me  to  keep  a  dog. 


AIDS    TO    ENGIilSH    COMPOSITION.  Id 


Mxamples, 

In  th3  same  manner  the  learner  may  write  a  simple  dialogue  about  the 
following  tsabjects : 

A  Sunday  School  ex 
•  cursion. 

A  holiday  visit. 

An  evening  party. 

A  wedding. 

A  funeral. 

A  meeting-house,   An  excursion  on  the  water.    A  baptism. 
A  school.  A  lesson.  The  celebration  of  an 

A  sled.  A  new  year's  present.  anniversary. 

An  evening  party.  A  walk  about  th«  city.  A  visit  to  a  printing 

A  sleigh-ride.  An  excursion  into  the  woods,    office. 


A  cat. 

A  walk. 

A  fox. 

A  pair  of  skates. 

A  horse. 

A  tree, 

A  watch. 

A  kite. 

A  dress. 

A  book. 

A  ride. 

A  bonnet. 

vni. 

WORDS. 


Sentences  consist  of  words,  and  words  are  used  to  express 
thoughts  or  ideas.  The  ideas  which  they  express  depend  on 
their  connexion  with  other  words.  Sometimes  the  same  word 
will  signify  an  action,  an  object,  a  quality,  or  an  attribute. 
Thus,  in  the  sentence  "  I  shall  present  the  book  to  Charles," 
the  word  "present"  signifies  an  action.  If  I  say  "the  book 
will  then  be  a  present^^  the  word  ^'■present"  will  signify  an 
object,  and  is  a  noun  or  name.  But,  if  the  sentence  be, 
"  Charles  must  be  present  when  the  book  is  given,"  the  word 
^''present"  will  signify  an  attribute,  and  is  an  adjective. 

The  proper  use  of  words,  and  the  correct  understanding  of 
them,  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  written 
languao-e.  It  is  therefore  highly  important  that  every  writer 
be  careful  to  use  the  proper  word  to  express  the  idea  which 
he  wishes  to  communicate ;  and  when  he  is  required  to  use  a 
word,  that  he  endeavor  thereby  to  express  no  other  idea  than 
that,  which  the  word  is  intended  to  convey. 

The  Dictionary  is  however  a  very  unsafe  guide  to  the 
proper  si;!7iifi cation  of  words,  because  their  meanmg  is  so  ma 
terially  affected  by  the  connexion  in  which  they  stand. 


16  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMTOSITION. 

There  are  many  words,  the  sound  of  which  is  exactly  simi. 
lar  to  the  sound  of  other  words  that  are  spelt  very  differently. 
In  using  such  words  there  is  little  danger  of  their  being  mis- 
taken the  one  for  the  other,  because,  as  has  just  been  said,  we 
are  guided  by  the  connexion  in  which  they  stand.  But  in 
writing  them,  many  mistakes  are  frequently  made,  on  account 
of  the  want  of  early  attention  to  the  subject  of  orthography. 
The  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  afford  an  exercise  in  the  use  of 
such  words  as  are  both  sounded  and  spelt  alike,  and  of  those 
which  have  the  same  sound  and  are  spelt  differently. 

The  remark  may  here  be  made  that  the  change  of  a  single 
letter,  or  the  removal  of  the  accent,  frequently  alters  the  en- 
tire character  of  a  word.  Thus  the  words  advise  and  prac- 
tise, which  are  verbs,  expressing  an  action,  by  the  change  of 
the  letter  s  to  c,  become  practice,  and  advice,  wliich  are  nouns. 
Again,  the  words  comment',  increase',  are  verbs ;  while  com'- 
ment,  in'crease,  &c.  are  nouns.  In  the  use  of  such  words,  the 
student  should  be  accustomed  to  note  the  word,  in  his  early 
exercises,  by  the  proper  accent. 

Example. 

•'  I  saw  with  some  surprise  that  the  Muses,  whose  business 
was  to  cheer  and  encourage  those  who  were  toiling  up  the 
ascent,  would  often  sing  in  the  bowers  of  pleasure,  and  ac- 
company those  who  were  enticed  away  at  the  call  of  the  pas- 
sions. They  accompanied  them,  however,  but  a  little  way, 
and  always  forsook  them  when  they  lost  sight  of  the  hill. 
The  tyrants  then  doubled  their  chains  upon  the  unliappy  cap- 
tives, and  led  them  away  without  resistance,  and  almost  with 
their  own  assent,  to  the  cells  of  Ignorance  or  the  mansions  of 
misery." 

Johnson,  slightly  altered. 

Example  2d. 

"  The  bold  design 
Pleased  highly  those  infernal  states,  and  joy 
Sparkled  in  all  their  eyes ;  with  full  assent 
They  rose." 

MiUon,  Paradise  Ijost,  B.  2fL 


AID3    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  17 

"  He  hath  deserved  worthily  ot  his  country ;  and  his  ascent 
(namely,  to  the  highest  honors^  S^c.)  is  not  by  such  easy  degrees 
as  those  who  have  been  supple  and  courteous  to  the  people." 
Shakspeare,  Coriolanus,  Act  2d,  Scene  2d. 

Exercises. 

Air,  ere,  heir ;  devise,  device ;  altar,  alter ;  trans'fer,  transfer' ;  palate, 
pallet,  palette ;  fane,  fain,  feign ;  bear,  bare ;  bore,  boar ;  council,  counsel ; 
coarse,  course ;  ceiling,  sealing ;  drawer,  drawer ;  eminent,  imminent ; 
canon,  cannon ;  freeze,  frieze,  frize ;  gnaw,  nor ;  hoard,  horde ;  horse, 
hoarse ;  heal,  heel ;  haul,  hall ;  key,  quay ;  lead,  led ;  lyre,  liar ;  manor, 
manner ;  mien,  mean ;  meat,  meet,  mete ;  pare,  pear ;  peas,  piece ;  prac- 
tice, practise ;  assent,  ascent ;  rite,  right,  write,  wright ;  rose,  rows ;  vein, 
vain ;  rain,  rein,  reign ;  raise,  rays,  raze ;  size,  sighs ;  slay,  sleigh,  slaie ; 
their,  there ;  vale,  veil,  vail ;  white,  wight ;  way,  weigh,  whev ;  you,  yew ; 
fare,  fair;  deer,  dear;  hue,  hew;  high,  hie;  hole,  whole;  seen,  scene, 
seine ;  stile,  style ;  straight,  strait ;  waist,  waste ;  bell,  belle ;  sell,  cell ; 
herd,  heard;  wring,  ring;  aught,  ought;  lessen,  lesson;  profit,  prophet; 
iholer,  collar;  well,  (anotm,)  well,  (an adverb);  per'fume, perfume' ;  sub- 
ject' ;  sub'ject ;  ob'ject,  object' ;  im'port,  import' ;  pres'ent,  present' ;  ab- 
sent', ab'sent ;  sur'vey,  survey' ;  fer'ment,  ferment' ;  tor'ment,  torment' ; 
insult',  in'sult;  cora'pact,  compact';  con'cert,  concert';  dis'count,  dis- 
count'; rec'ord,  record';  ex'tract,  extract';*  bow,  beau;  berry,  bury; 
bough,  bow ;  capitol,  capital ;  cask,  casque ;  censer,  censor ;  claws,  clause ; 
site,  cite,  sight;  clime,  climb;  complement,  compliment;  creek,  creak; 
flue,  flew;  blew,  blue;  fort,  forte;  frays,  phrase;  herd,  heard;  slight^ 
sleight;  wave,  waive. 


OF  PHEASES,  CLAUSES,  AM)  SENTENCES. 

When  names,  whether  proper,  common,  or  abstract,  are 
joined  to  their  subjects  by  means  of  connecting  words,  but 
without  a  verb,  the  collection  is  called  a  phrase.  As,  The 
extent  of  the  city ;  The  path  up  the  mountain ;  The  house 
by  the  side  of  the  river. 

If  the  connecting  word  be  a  verb,  the  assemblage  of  words 


*  There  are  about  sixty  words  in  the  English  language  that  are  thus  dis 
tinguished  by  the  accent  alone.     See  Rice's  Composition,  page  21si 
2* 


IS 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


is  then  styled  a  clause,  a  simple  sentence,  or  a  simple  propo- 
sition, words  of  neai'ly  equivalent  import.  As,  The  city  is 
large.  The  path  up  the  mountain  was  exceedingly  steep. 
They  are  taught  by  a  good  master.  See  Hice's  Composition 
pages  1th  and  Qoth. 

The  words  phrase  and  clause  may  therefore  be  thus  de 
fined: 

A  phrase  is  a  connected  assemblage  of  words,  without  a 
finite  verb. 

A  clause  is  a  connected  assemblage  of  words,  with  a  finite 
rerb.* 

A  sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words  making  completii 
sense. 

The  difference  between  a  phrase,  a  clause,  and  a  sentence, 
may  be  stated  as  follows  :  A  sentence  always,  a  clause  some 
times,  but  a  phrase  never  makes  complete  sense. 

There  aro  various  kinds  of  phrases,  such  as  substantive 
phrases,  participial  phrases,  infinitive  phrases,  adverbial 
phrases,  prepositional  phrases,  and  interjectional  phrases ;  so 
named  from  the  office  which  they  perform,  or  the  parts  of 
speech  which  they  contain. 

Clauses  are  frequently  designated  neuter,  active-transitive, 
active-intransitive,  and  passive ;  in  allusion  to  the  verbs  which 
ibrm  them.  A  clause  which  contains  a  relative  pronoun  is 
ealled  a  relative  clause,  and  one  containing  a  verb  in  the  sub- 
junctive mood  is  called  the  subjunctive  clause.  Specimens 
of  most  of  these  will  be  found  in  the  following?  sentence : 


Neuter  clause, 

Suhsfatitive  phrase  in  apposition. 

Active  clause, 

Relative  clause,    . 

Passive  clause, 

Substantive  phrase, 

Participial  phrase, 

Minor  active  and  relative  daxae. 

Infinitive  phrase. 

Substantive  phrase. 


Darias  was 
a  King  of  Persia. 
Alexander  conquered  Darins, 
who  fled  from  the  field  of  battle . 
(but)  he  was  assassinated 
by  one  of  his  own  pcnerals,        [der, 
(wlio)  coveting  the  favor  of  Alexan- 
slew  his  unfortunate  niaste" 
to  secure  his  own  interest 
with  tliat  monarch. 


A  sentence  usually  consists  of  three  principal  parts,  the 
object,  the  verb,  and  the  object.     As,  The  man  struck  the 


♦  A  finite  verb  is  a  verb  that  has  *  subject  or  nominative.  Verbs  in  the 
Infinitive  mood,  or  the  participle,  as  they  have  no  nomirative,  are  not  con- 
Bidored  fmite  verbs. 


ilDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  19 

boy.  Here  man  is  the  subject,  struck  the  verb,  and  hoy  the 
object.  S^ome  verbs,  however,  admit  no  object,  after  them, 
and  the  sentence  will  then  consist  of  only  two  principal  parts, 
the  subject  and  the  verb.  All  the  other  parts  of  a  sentence 
are  merely  adjuncts,  relating  to  the  principal  parts,  and  de- 
signed to  express  some  cii'cumstance  affecting  their  signifi- 
cation. 

Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  sentences  and  compound 
sentences. 

A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  nominative  and  one 
finite  verb.     As,  "  Life  is  short." 

A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more  simple  sen- 
tences, joined  together  by  one  or  more  connecting  words.  As, 
"  Life  is  short,  and  art  is  long."  The  different  parts  of  a 
compound  sentence  are  called  members. 

Clauses  are  joined  together  to  form  compound  sentences  by 
conjunctions  and  relative  pronouns ;  and  phrases  are,  for  the 
most  part,  united  by  prepositions  and  adverbs ;  the  latter  are 
also  frequently  employed  to  connect  minor  clauses  with  the 
other  parts  of  a  sentence. 

Both  the  subject  and  the  object  of  a  verb  may  be  expressed 
as  follows : 

First.  By  a  single  noun  or  pronoun.  As,  [John]  struck 
[Lim.] 

Secondly.     By  a  series  of  nouns  or  pronouns.     As,  [Dili- 
gence, industry,  and  proper  improvement  of  time]  are  mate 
rial  duties  of  the  young. 

Thirdly.  By  a  substantive,  or  an  infinitive  phrase  or 
phrases.  As,  [The  acquisition  of  knowledge]  is  one  of  the 
most  honorable  occupations  of  youth. 

Fourthly.  By  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  attended  by  a  minoi' 
or  relative  clause.  As,  [The  veil,  which  covers  from  our 
eyes  the  events  of  succeeding  years]  is  a  veil  woven  by  ihe 
hand  of  mercy. 

Fifthly.  By  an  entire  member  of  a  compound  sentence. 
As,  [He  who  pretends  to  great  sensibility  towards  men,  and 
yet  has  no  feeling  for  the  high  objects  of  religion,  no  heart  to 
admire  and  adore  the  great  Father  of  the  Universe]  has  rea- 
son to  distrist  the  truth  and  delicacy  of  his  sensibility. 

The  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  make  the  student  acquainted 
with  the  constituent  parts  and  members  of  sentences,  both 


20  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

simple  and  compound.  The  exercises  that  are  subjoined,  ar  ^ 
presented  that  he  may  distinguish  the  phrases  from  the  clauses, 
the  clauses  from  the  sentences,  the  imperfect  sentences  from 
the  perfect,  and  the  simple  from  the  compound. 

Exercises. 

The  eye  of  the  passing  traveller  may  mark  them,  or  mark  them  tjou 
but  they  stand  peacefully  in  thousands  over  all  the  land ;  and  most  beau- 
tiful do  they  make  it,  through  all  its  wide  valleys  and  narrow  glens,  —  its 
low  holms  encircled  by  the  rocky  walls  of  some  bonny  bum,  —  its  green 
mounts  elated  with  their  little  crowning  groves  of  plane  trees,  —  its  yellow 
cornfields,  —  its  bare  pastoral  hill-sides,  and  all  its  heathy  moors,  on  whose 
black  bosom  lie  shining  or  concealed  glades  of  excessive  verdure,  inhabit- 
ed by  flowers,  and  visited  only  by  the  far-flying  bees. 

By  arguments  so  strong.  If  we  could  imagine.  They  all  agree  in  the 
belief.  The  fearful  consequences.  In  spite  of  all  admonition  and  reproof 
Feel  themselves  at  liberty.  Such  an  undertaking  would  be  vain.  I  am 
desirous  of  explaining.  For  the  reasons  already  given.  "We  cannot 
but  rejoice  that.  Directed  their  attention.  Attempted  to  prove.  Make 
themselves  accountable.  The  question  which  arises  has  puzzled.  Has 
produced  in  our  mind.  Religion  has  its  seat  in  the  heart.  Were  now 
out  in  thousands.  Would  be  expedient.  Remains  for  us  to  notice.  On 
the  Sabbath  morning.  Overgrown  with  grass  and  moss.  With  somewhat 
diminished  lustre.  The  daisies  of  a  luxuriant  spring  had  covered  the  spot. 
Opportunity  of  addressing  each  other.  Had  fatally  infected.  With  in- 
describable pleasure.  The  most  remote  period  of  time.  We  hoped  that 
tJiis  sight.  The  interior  of  the  cavern.  Very  miportant  purposes.  Have 
a  tendency  to  preserve.  Withdraws  his  propitious  light.  However  base  or 
unworthy.  Is  the  emblem  of.  How  boundless.  The  tender  assiduities 
of  friendship.  Irregular  projecting  rocks.  Was  peculiarly  dear.  Witk 
very  great  pleasure.  The  refulgent  lamp  of  nigut.  The  science  which 
treats  of  language  is  called  Grammar.  Writing  is  the  art  of  making 
thoughts  visil)le. 

Now  came  still  Evening  on,  and  Twilight  gray 

Had  in  her  sober  livery  all  things  clad. 

The  melancholy  days  have  come,  the  saddest  of  the  year. 

Of  wailing  winds,  and  naked  woods,  and  meadows  brown  and  sere, 

Heaped  in  the  hollows  of  the  grove,  the  withered  leaves  lie  dead. 

They  rustle  to  the  eddying  gust,  and  to  the  rabbit's  tread. 

The  lower  animals,  as  far  as  we  are  able  to  judge,  arc  entirely  occnpied 
with  the  objects  of  their  present  perceptions ;  and  the  case  is  nearly  th« 
same  with  tlie  lower  orders  of  our  own  species. 

Diligence,  industry  and  proper  improvement  of  time,  are  material 
duties  of  the  young. 

Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise  ; 
Act  well  your  part,  tiicre  all  the  honor  lies. 

Charity,  like  the  sun,  brightens  every  object  on  which  it  shines. 

Though  I  speak  Avith  the  tongue  of  men  and  of  angels  and  have  not 
charity,  I  am  nothing. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  21 


X. 

USE  OF  WORDS,  PHRASES,  AJ^B  CLAUSES,  m  THE 
EXPANSION  OF  THE   IDEA. 

The  previous  Exercise  having  rendered  the  student  fa- 
miliar with  the  parts  of  which  a  compound  sentence  is  com- 
posed, it  is  now  proposed  that  he  be  exercised  in  the 
construction  of  such  sentences ;  as  in  the  following 

Mcample. 

We  went. 

We  went  in  a  carriage. 

We  went  in  a  carriage  to  the  meeting. 

We  went  in  a  carriage  to  the  meeting  last  night. 

We  went  in  a  carriage  to  the  meeting  in  Church  Street  last 
night. 

We  went  in  a  carriage  to  the  meeting  in, Church  Street  last 
night,  and  heard  an  excellent  sermon. 

We  went  in  a  carriage  to  the  meeting  in  Church  Street  last 
night,  with  a  number  of  friends,  and  heard  an  excellent  ser- 
mon from  the  Rev.  Mr.  Stevens. 

We  went  in  a  carriage  to  the  meeting  in  Church  Street  last 
night,  with  a  number  of  friends  from  the  country,  and  heard 
an  excellent  sermon  from  the  Rev.  Mr.  Stevens,  on  the  duties 
of  children  to  their  parents. 

We  went  in  a  carriage  to  the  meeting  in  Church  Street  last 
night,  with  a  number  of  friends  from  the  country,  and  heard 
an  excellent  sermgn  from  the  Rev.  Mr.  Stevens,  on  the  duties 
of  children  to  their  parents,  delivered  in  a  very  solemn  and 
impressive  manner. 

Exercises* 

In  the  same  manner  the  stndent  may  expand  the  following  simple 
sentences : 

My  father  sailed.  They  have  done  all  they  could 

John  related.  A  cat  caught. 

If  Henry  had  nDt  disobeyed.  A  thief  was  canght. 

God  created.  The  lightning  struck. 

t  remember.  The  river  rolled. 

Habitual  indolence  undermines.  The  minister  preached. 


22 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


I  heard  John  say. 

Henry  declared. 

This  book  contains. 

A  horse  ran  away. 

Gentleness  corrects. 

The  boys  took. 

The  servants  returned. 

My  father  keeps. 

The  ship  sailed. 

The  master  came. 

A  large  number  of  peopled  assembled. 

Geography  teaches. 


The  artist  painted 
I  have  purchased. 
His  parents  reside. 
The  boy  feU. 
The  girls  rose. 
A  mad  dog  bit. 
The  sheriff  took. 
The  wind  blew  down. 
The  tide  ovei-flowed. 
The  earthquake  destroyed 
The  beggar  came. 
I  heard  him  sing. 


XI. 


OF  THE  PARTS  AND  ADJUNCTS  OF  A  SENTENCE. 


The  natural  order  of  an  English  sentence  is  to  place  the 
subject  with  its  adjuncts,  if  any,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sen- 
tence, and  the  verb  and  the  objective,  with  their  respectiv^e 
adjuncts  after  it.  This  order,  however,  it  is  not  necessary  al- 
ways to  preserve,  but  on  the  contrary  the  beauty  and  haiinony 
of  the  sentence  are  often  greatly  increased  by  a  departure  from 
it.  With  respect  to  the  cadence,  or  close  of  a  sentence,  care 
should  be  taken  that  it  be  not  abrupt  nor  unpleasant.  In 
order  to  give  a  sentence  its  proper  close,  the  longest  member 
and  the  fullest  words  should  be  reserved  for  the  conclusion. 
But  in  the  distribution  of  the  members,  and  in  the  cadence  of 
the  period,  as  well  as  in  the  sentences  themselves,  variety 
must  be  observed  ;  for  the  mind  and  the  ear  soon  tire  with  a 
frequent  repetition  of  the  same  tone. 

Li  the  following  example  the  student  will  notice  the  differ- 
ent order  in  which  the  parts  of  the  sentence  are  arranged, 
while  they  still  collectively  convey  the  same  idea.  The  dif- 
ferent forms  of  construction,  which  depend  on  the  pow»er  of 
varying  the  arrangement,  have  a  material  effect  upon  the 
precision  and  harmony  of  the  sentence ;  and  therefore  that 
arrangement  is  always  to  be  preferred,  which,  while  it  sounds 
most  harmoniously  to  the  ear,  conveys  most  clearly  the  idea 
intended  to  be  expressed. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSIllON.  28 

Example 

The  poet  must  study  variety,  above  all  things,  not  only 
in  professed  descriptions  of  the  scenery,  but  in  frequent 
allusions  to  natural  objects,  which,  of  course,  often  occur  in 
pastorals. 

Above  all  things,  the  poet,  not  only  in  professed  descriptions 
of  the  scenery,  but  in  the  frequent  allusions  to  natural  objects 
which  occur  of  course  in  pastorals,  must  study  variety. 

Not  only  in  professed  descriptions  of  the  scenery,  but  in 
the  frequent  allusions  to  natural  objects,  which  occur,  of 
course,  in  pastorals,  the  poet  must,  above  all  things,  study 
variety.* 

Exercises. 

[The  student  will  notice  that  in  the  following  sentences,  the  members 
are  very  badly  arranged.  It  is  required  of  him  to  present  them  in  such 
order  as  will  make  them  most  harmonious  and  exliibit  the  sense  to  the 
best  advantage.] 

There  was  a  feeling  of  strangeness,  as  he  passed  through  the  village, 
that  every  thing  should  be  just  as  it  was  when  he  left. 

In  the  trees,  there  was  a  melancholy  gusty  sound,  and  the  night  was 
shutting  in  about  it,  as  they  drew  near  the  house. 

But  not  only  from  its  relation  to  the  past  night,  the  morning  is  a  fit 
time  for  devotion,  but  considered  as  an  introduction  to  a  new  day. 

To  strengthen  a  character,  which  will  fit  me  for  heaven  or  for  hell,  to 
perform  actions  which  will  never  be  forgotten,  to  receive  impressions 
which  may  never  be  efi'aced,  to  that  world  where  I  have  often  gone  astray, 
I  am  to  return. 

Temptations  which  have  often  subdued  me,  this  day,  I  am  to  meet ; 
again  with  T)pportunities  of  usefulness,  I  am  to  help  in  deciding  the  hap- 

*  It  will  save  much  time  and  trouble  in  copying,  if  the  student,  in  the 
preparation  of  his  exercises,  pursue  the  following  method :  placing  the  dif- 
ferent members  of  the  sentence  in  separate  lines  and  numtermg  them, 
he  may  afterwards  arrange  them  by  their  numbers,  as  in  tLe  following 
example : 

1  We, 

2  with  the  rest  of  our  party, 

3  notwithstanding  the  storm  and  darkness, 

4  pursued, 

5  our  journey. 


1,   4,  5,   3,  2, 

14    5    2  3 

13    4    5  2 

2    14    5  3 

2  3    14  5 

3  12    4  5 
^2145 


4  15    2  3 

4  15    3  2 

5  14    2  3 
5  14    3  2 

2  4    15  3 

3  2    1    4  3&0. 


24  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

piness  of  their  present  and  future  life,  in  mendmg  their  characters,  and  to 
influence  the  minds  of  others. 

Having  on  the  mercy  and  protection  of  the  Almighty  cast  ourselves, 
to  the  labor  and  duties  which  he  imposes,  with  new  confidence  we  should 
go  forth. 

Given  in  part  to  prayer,  as  of  devotional  topics  and  excitements,  a  va 
riety  it  furnishes,  this  period  should  be. 

And  gone  to  testify  of  us  to  our  judge,  and  that  another  day  has  gone, 
at  tliis  hour,  naturally  a  reflecting  mind  will  remember. 

Time  misspent  and  talents  wasted,  defective  motives  and  irregular  de- 
sires, if  suffered  to  speak  plainly  and  inspect  faithfully,  conscience  will 
recount. 

Between  the  brothers  was  no  deadly  and  deep  quarrel  and  of  this  un 
natural  estrangement  the  cause  neither  of  them  could  tell. 

In  the  Uttle  hollow  that  lay  between  the  grave  of  their  father,  whoso 
shroud  was  haply  not  yet  still  from  the  fall  of  dust  to  dust,  and  of  their 
mother  long  since  dead,  as  the  brothers  composedly  but  firmly  stood, 
grasping  each  others  hand,  the  minister  said,  "  I  must  fulfill  the  promise 
which  I  made  to  your  father  on  his  death  bed  "  and  with  a  oleasant  coun- 
tenance stood  beside  them. 

On  a  voyage  in  quest  of  a  north-west  passage  to  India,  Henry  Hudson 
in  1609,  an  Englishman  in  the  service  or  the  Dutch,  discovered  the  noble 
river  that  bears  his  name. 


xn. 

SENTENCES. 

Tlie  following  words  constitute  a  perfect  sentence.     It  is 
required  to  arrange  them  into  sentences. 

Example, 


A  gratitude  emotion  delightful  is. 
Gratiti»de  is  a  delightful  emotion. 

2. 

Exclamation  interesting  adverse  when  circumstances  under 
Mark  Antony  this  made  "  have  all  I  except  lost  away  given 
have  I' what." 

Mark  Antony,  when  under  adverse  circumstances,  made 
this  interestinfr  exclamation  •  "  I  have  lost  all,  except  what  I 
have  given  «way." 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  25 


Exercises, 

Sorrows  the  poor  pity  sufferings  of  the  and. 

To  itseli'  others  heart  grateful  the  duty  at  performs  once  its  and  itself 
grateful  endears. 

Beings  best  of  God  kindest  the  is  and. 

Lamented  an  amiable  youth  sincere  of  terms  in  grief  parent  death 
aflFectionate  the  of  a  most. 

Temper  even  and  mild  remarkably  a  possessed  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

Words  few  these  in  duties  contained  all  are  moral  our :  By  do  done  be 
would  as  you. 

To  eat  and  drink,  instead  of  living  do  as  many  drink  and  eat  we  should, 
to  live  in  order. 

Glorious  the  Sun  how  an  object  is ;  but  glorious  more  hew  much  good 
if  great  that  and  good  Being  use  for  our  made  it  who. 


xm. 

CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

Th  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  note,  or  any 
ather  piece  of  writing  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

The  names  of  the  months  and  the  days  of  the  week  should 
always  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

The  first  word  after  a  period  should  begin  with  a  capital 
letter. 

The  first  word  after  every  interrogation,  or  exclamation, 
should  begin  with  a  capital  letter ;  unless  a  number  of  inter- 
rogative, or  exclamatory  sentences  occur  together,  and  are 
not  totally  independent. 

The  various  names,  or  appellations  of  the  Deity  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter ;  as,  God,  Jehovah,  the  Almighty, 
the  Supreme  Being,  the  Lord,  Providence,  the  Messiah,  the 
Holy  Spirit,  &c. 

AH  proper  names,  such  as  the  names  of  persons,  places, 
streets,  mountains,  lakes,  rivers,  ships,  &c,  and  adjectives 
derived  from  them,  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

The  first  word  of  a  quotation  after  a  colon,  or  when  it  i«  in 
%  direct  form,  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 
8 


26  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

The  first  word  of  an  example,  every  substantative  and  prin- 
cipal word  in  the  titles  of  books,  and  the  first  word  of  every 
line  in  poetry,  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter 

The  pronoun  I,  and  the  interjection  O,  are  always  written 
in  capitals. 

Any  words,  when  remarkably  eraphatical,  or  when  they 
are  the  principal  subject  of  the  composition,  may  begin  with 
capitals. 

Exercises. 

when  Socrates  Was  Asked  what  Man  Approached  the  Nearest  to  Per 
feet  happiness,  He  answered,  that  man  who  Has  The  Fewest  wants. 

addison  Has  Remarked,  with  Equal  piety  and  truth,  that  the  Creation 
is  a  Perpetual  feast  To  the  mind  of  a  Good  man. 

dihgence,  industry,  and  Proper  improvement  Of  time,  Are  Mateiial 
duties  of  the  Young ;  but  the  young  Often  Neglect  These  duties. 

how  often  shall  my  brother  sin  against  me  and  I  forgive  him  ?  till 
Seven  Times  1 

but  what  Excuse  can  the  englishman  Plead  ?  the  custom  Of  duelling  ? 

how  manv  lessons  are  there  in  this  book  ?  are  there  More  Than  twenty 
five? 

why  did  You  Not  Arrive  sooner  ?  were  you  necessarily  Detained  1 

daughter  of  faith.  Awake !  Anse  !  Illume 
the  Dread  Unknown,  The  chaos  of  The  tomb. 

the  lord  My  pasture  Shall  Prepare, 
and  Feed  Me  With  A  shepherd's  care. 

father  of  all  in  Eveiy  Age, 

in  Every  CHme  Adored, 

by  Saint,  by  savage,  and  By  sage, 

Jehovah,  jove,  or  lord 

thou  great  first  cause,  least  understood, 
who  All  my  Sense  Confined  (confinedst), 
to  Know  But  This,  That  thou  Art  good 
and  That  myself  Am  Blind. 

yet  Gavest  me  In  this  Dark  Estate,  &c. 

tne  language  of  Manv  of  the  europcan  nations  was  derived  From  tnt 

Ancient  latin. 
The  english  and  french  Fleets  had  a  Severe  Engagement 
i  saw  the  dutch  Ambassador  in  the  Carriage  of  the  Spanish  consul 
Always  remember  this  Ancient  maxim.  Spoken  by  the  greek  phihoso 

pher :  "  Know  thyself." 

The  christian  lawgiver  Says,  "  take  up  Thy  Cross  Daily  and  follow  me. 

Solomon  observes,  that  "  Pride  goes  Before  Destruction." 

Johnson's  dictionary  has  long  been  the  standard  of  cnalish  orthography 

t>ut  the  work  of  doctor  webster  seems  in  a  Fair  way  to  Supplant  It 
have  you  read  roUin's  ancient  history. 

thomson's  seasons  and  cowper's  task  contain  many  Poetical  Beanties 
i  hope  You  will  he  able  to  Write  Correctly  All  ttat  i  hnvo  Written 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  27 

XIV. 

OF  PUNCTUATION.* 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  a  written  composition 
into  sentences,  or  parts  of  sentences  ;  and  is  principally  used 
to  mark  the  grammatical  divisions  of  a  sentence.  The  marks 
employed  in  punctuation  are  sometimes  used  to  note  the  dif- 
ferent pauses  and  tones  of  voice,  which  the  sense  and  an 
accurate  pronunciation  require. 

The  characters  or  marks,  used  in  punctuation  are : 

The  Comma   t  >  The  quotation  marks  "  ** 

The  Semicolon  J  ;  The  Diaeresis 

The  Colon  :  Crotchets  ( ) 

The  Period  §  .  Brackets  [] 

*  The  importance  of  correct  punctuation  may  "be  seen  by  the  following 
extract  from  the  London  Times  of  September,  1818. 

"  The  contract  lately  made  for  lighting  the  town  of  Liverpool,  during  the 
ensuing  year,  has  been  thrown  void  by  the  misplacing  of  a  comma  in  the 
advertisement,  which  ran  thus  :  '  The  lamps  at  present  are  about  4050  in 
number,  and  have  in  general  two  spouts  each,  composed  of  not  less  than 
twenty  threads  of  cotton.'  The  contractor  would  have  proceeded  to  fur- 
nish each  lamp  with  the  said  twenty  threads  ;  but,  this  being  but  half  the 
usual  quantitv,  the  commissioner  discovered  that  the  difference  arose  from 
tlie  comma  following,  instead  of  preceding,  the  word  each.  The  parties 
agreed  to  annul  the  contract,  and  a  new  one  is  now  ordered." 

Again ;  the  meaning  of  the  following  sentence  is  materially  affected  by 
Ihe  punctuation : 

"  I  said  that  he  is  dishonest  it  is  true  and  I  am  sorry  for  it." 

Now  the  nause  placed  after  dishonesty  will  imply  that  it  is  true  that  he  is 
dishonest,  thus :  "  I  said  that  he  is  dishonest ;  it  is  true,  and  I  am  sorry  for 
it."  But,  if  the  pause  be  placed  after  true,  the  sentence  implies  that  it  is 
true  that  I  said  he  is  dishonest,  and  I  am  sorry  that  I  said  so,  thus :  "  1 
said  that  he  is  dishonest,  it  is  true ;  and  I  am  sorry  for  it." 

The  misplacing  of  a  comma,  by  a  Mr.  Sharpe,  converted  an  innocent 
remark  into  a  piece  of  horrid  blasphemy  :  "  Believing  Richard  Brothers  to 
be  a  prophet  sent,  by  God  I  have  engraved  his  portrait."  Had  the  comma 
been  removed  two  words  forward,  the  assertion  would  have  been  innocent. 

t  The  word  comma  is  derived  from  the  Greek  language,  and  properly 
designates  a  segment,  section,  or  part  c^lt  off  from  a  complete  sentence 
In  its  usual  acceptation,  it  signifies  the  point,  which  marks  the  smaller 
segments,  or  portions  of  a  period.  It,  therefore,  represents  the  shortest 
pause,  and  consequently  marks  the  least  constructive  or  most  dependent 
parts  of  a  sentence. 

I  The  word  semicolon  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  semi,  which  meani 
kaif,  and  the  Greek  word  kolon,  which  signifies  a  member. 

§  The  word  period  is  derived  from  the  Greek  language,  and  means  '*  m 
lirctiit.'" 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


The  Exclamation 
The  Interrogation 
The  Dash 
The  EUiosls 

I    The  Brace 
—    The  Acute  Accent 

TVip.  rj-ravp.  Acpp.nt. 

t 

/ 

The  Hyphen                     -     The  Circumflex  Accent 
The  Breve                       w     The  Caret 
The  Apostropae               '    The  Cedilla 

To  these  may  be  added  the  marks  of  reference  • 

The  Asterisk                   *     The  Section 
The  Obelisk                     t     The  Parallels 
The  Double  Obelisk        {     The  Paragraph 

A 
A 

9 

§ 
If 

RULES    OF   PUNCTUATION. 

1.  When  two  or  more  words  are  connected  without  the  connecting 
vford  being  expressed,  the  comma  supplies  the  place  of  that  word ;  as, 
•*  Alfred  was  a  brave,  pious,  patriotic  prince." 

2.  Those  parts  of  a  sentence  which  contain  the  relative  pronoun,  the 
case  absolute,  the  nominative  case  independent,  any  parenthetical  clause, 
and  simple  members  of  sentences,  connected  by  words  expressing  a  com 
parison,  must  be  separated  by  commas ;  as,  "  The  elephant,  which  you 
saw  in  the  menagerie,  took  the  child  up  with  his  trunk  into  his  cage." 
"  Shame  being  lost,  all  \ai-tue  is  lost"  "  Peace,  O  Virtue,  peace  is  all 
thine  own."  "  Bettei'  is  a  dinner  of  herbs  with  love,  than  a  stalled  ox  and 
hatred  therewith." 

3.  The  following  words  and  phrases,  and  others  similar  to  them,  are 
generally  separated  by  commas  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence ;  namely 
Nay,  so,  however,  hence,  besides,  perhaps,  finally,  in  short,  at  least,  more- 
over, again,  first,  secondly,  thirdly,  lastly,  once  more,  on  the  contrary, 
tic. 

4.  The  words  of  another  writer,  not  formally  introduced  as  a  quota- 
ion,  and  words  and  clauses  expressing  contrast  or  opposition,  though 
closely  connected  in  constraction,  are  separated  by  a  comma;  as,  "I 
pity  tiie  man,  who  can  travel  from  Dan  to  Beersheba  and  cry,  'T  is  all 
barren." 

"  Though  deep,  yet  clear ;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull ; 
Strong,  without  rage ;  without  o'erflowing,  full." 

5.  When  the  absence  of  a  word  is  indicated  in  reading  or  speaking  by 
a  pause,  its  place  maybe  ir  ^nlied  by  a  comma;  as,  "From  law  arises 
eecuFity :  from  security,  in^..  j ;  from  inquiry,  knowledge." 

6.  Nouns  in  apposition,  accompanied  by  explanatory  words  or  phrases, 
are  separated  by  commas ;  but  it  such  nouns  are  single,  or  only  form  a 
proper  name,  they  are  not  divided :  as,  "  Paul  the  Apostle  of  tlic  Gentiles 
was  eminent  for  his  zeal  Obd  knowledge." 

_  7.  When  a  sentence  consists  of  several  members,  each  constituting  a 
distinct  proposition,  and  having  a  dependence  upon  each  other,  or  upon 
some  common  clause,  they  are  separated  by  semicolons ;  as,  "  Wisdom 
iias  builded  licr  liouRo ;  she  hath  hewn  out  her  seven  pillars;  sh^  hatli 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  29 

killed  her  beasts ;  she  hath  mingled  her  wine ;  she  hath  also  furiished 
her  table." 

8.  The  colon  is  used  to  divide  a  sentence  into  two  or  more  parte, 
which,  although  the  sense  be  complete  in  each,  are  not  wholly  indepen- 
dent ;  as,  "  Nature  felt  her  inability  to  extricate  herself  from  the  conse- 
quences of  guilt :  the  gospel  reveals  the  plan  of  Divine  interpositioD 
and  aid." 

9.  The  colon*  is  used  when  an  example,  a  quotation,  or  a  speech  is 
introduced ;  as,  "  The  Scriptures  give  us  an  amiable  representation  of 
the  Deity  in  these  words :  God  is  love." 

10.  The  period  is  used  at  the  end  of  a  complete  and  independent  sen- 
tence. It  is  also  placed  after  initial  letters,  when  used  alone ;  and,  like- 
wise, after  all  abbreviations ;  as,  "  One  clear  and  direct  path  is  pointed 
out  to  man."  "  Fear  Grod."  "  Have  charity  towards  all  men."  "  G. 
W."  for  "George  Washington."  "Geo."  for  "George."  "  Benj."  for 
*'  Benjamin."  "  O.  S."  for  "  Old  Style."  "  F.  R.  S."  for  "  FeUow  of  the 
Royal  Society." 

In  a  general  view,  the  period  separates  the  paragraph  into  sentences , 
the  semicolon  divides  a  compound  sentence  into  simple  ones ;  and  the 
comma  collects  into  clauses  the  scattered  circumstances  of  manner  time, 
place,  relation,  &c.,  belonging  to  every  verb  and  to  every  noun. 

The  note  of  interrogation,t  or  the  question,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is 
placed  after  every  sentence  which  contains  a  question ;  as,  "  Who  is 
this  1 "  "  What  have  you  in  your  hand  ?  "  "  The  Cyprians  said  to  me, 
Why  do  you  weep  ?  " 

The  exclamation  point  is  used  to  express  any  sudden  or  violent  emo- 
tion ;  such  as  surprise,  joy,  grief,  love,  hatred,  anger,  pity,  anxiety,  ardent 
wish,  &c.  It  is  also  used  to  mark  an  exalted  idea  of  the  Deity  ;  and  is 
generally  placed  after  the  nominative  case  independent ;  and  after  the 
noun  or  pronoun  which  follows  an  interjection ;  as,  "  How  mischievous 
are  the  effects  of  war ! "    "0  blissful  days !  Ah  me  I  how  soon  ye  pass ! '' 

The  exclamation  point  is  also  used  after  sentences  containing  a  ques- 
tion when  no  answer  is  expected ;  as,  "  What  is  more  amiable  than 
virtue ! " 

Several  exclamation  points  are  sometimes  used  together,  either  in  n' 
])arenthesis  or  by  themselves,  for  the  purpose  of  exoressing  ridicule,  or  a 
great  degree  of  surprise,  &c 

A  parenthesis  |  is  a  sentence,  or  a  part  of  a  sentence,  inserted  within 


*  Some  very  respectable  grammarians  tell  us,  that  the  propriety  of  using 
a  colon  or  semicolon  is  sometimes  determined  by  the  use  or  omission  of  a 
conjunction ;  as,  "  Do  not  flatter  yourself  with  the  hope  of  perfect  happi 
ness :  there  is  no  such  thing  in  the  world : "  "  Do  not  flatter  yourselves 
with  the  hope  of  perfect  happiness ;  for  there  is  no  such  thing  in  the 
world."  But  many  respectable  writers  make  no  use  of  the  colon ;  and  it 
may  well  be  questioned,  whether  the  retention  of  this  character  among  the 
mai'ks  of  pimctuation  adds  any  thing  to  the  clearness  or  precision  of  written 
language. 

t  The  word  interrogation  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  and  means  a  q^iea 
tion. 

X  The  word  parenthesis  is  derived  from  the  Greek  language,  and  mean* 
wn  insertion. 

3* 


50  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

another  sentence,  but  which  may  be  omitted  without  injuring  the  sense 
or  construction,  and  is  enclosed  between  two  curved  lines  like  these ;  {  ). 

The  curved  lines  between  which  a  parenthesis  is  enclosed  are  called 
crotchets. 

Sometimes  a  sentence  is  enclosed  between  marks  like  these,  [  ]  which 
are  called  brackets 

The  following  difference  is  to  be  noticed  in  the  use  of  crotchets  and 
brackets  •  Crotchets  are  used  to  enclose  a  sentence,  or  part  of  a  sentence, 
which  is  inserted  between  the  parts  of  another  sentence :  Brackets  are 
generally  used  to  separate  two  subjects,  or  to  enclose  an  explanatory  note 
or  observation  standing  by  itself.  When  a  parenthesis  occurs  within 
another  parenthesis,  brackets  enclose  the  former  and  crotchets  the  latter ; 
as  in  the  following  sentence  from  Sterne :  "  I  know  the  banker  I  deal 
with,  or  the  physician  I  usually  call  in  [there  is  no  need,  cried  Dr.  Slop 
(waking),  to  call  in  any  ohvsician  in  this  case]  to  be  neither  of  them  men 
of  much  religion." 

It  may  be  here  remarked,  that  a  parenthesis  is  frequently  placed  be- 
t\veen  commas,  instead  of  crotchets,  &c. ;  but  the  best  writers  avoid  the 
ase  of  parentlieses  as  much  as  is  possible. 

The  hyphen  *  is  a  small  mark  placed  between  the  parts  of  a  compound 
word ;  as,  sea-water,  semi-circle. 

The  hyphen  is  also  used  to  denote  the  long  sound  of  a  vowel ;  as,  Epi- 
curean, (ieco-rum,  balco-ny. 

The  hyphen  must  always  be  put  at  the  end  of  the  line  when  part  of  a 
word  is  in  one  line  and  part  in  another ;  but,  in  this  case,  the  letters  of 
a  syllable  must  never  be  separated ;  as,        extraor- 

dinaiT,  not  ext- 
raordinary. 

Tfle  dash  is  a  straight  mark  longer  than  a  hyphen ;  thus,  — 

The  proper  use  of  the  dash  is  to  express  a  sudden  stop,  or  change  of 
the  subject;  but,  by  modern  writers,  it  is  emj)Ioyed  as  a  substitute  for 
almost  all  of  the  other  marks  ;  being  used  sometimes  for  a  comma,  semi 
colon,  colon,  or  period ;  sometimes  for  a  question  or  an  exclamation,  and 
sometimes  for  crotchets  and  brackets  to  enclose  a  parenthesis. 

An  ellipsis  t  or  omission  of  words,  sylla])les,  or  letters,  is  indicated  by 

various  marks ;  sometimes  by  a  dash ;  as,  the  k g,  for  the  king : 

sometimes  by  asterisks  or  stars,  like  these,  *  *  *  * ;  sometimes  by  hy 
phens,  thus,  -  -  -  - ;  sometimes  by  small  dots  or  periods,  like  these :  .... 

The  breve  (thus  —)  is  placed  over  a  vowel  to  indicate  its  short  sound, 
as,  St.  Helena, 

The  apostrophe  J  is  a  comma  placed  above  the  line.  It  is  used  as  the 
sign  of  the  j)Osscssive  case,  and  sometimes  indicates  the  omission  of  a 
letter  or  several  letters;  as,  John's;  '"Tis"  for  "it  is";  "tho'"  for 
« though ;  "  *'  lov'd  "  for  "  loved  " ;  "I  '11 "  for  "  1  will." 

The  quotation  marks,  or  inverted  commas,  as  they  are  sometimes 


*  The  word  hyphen  is  derived  from  the  Greek  language,  and  sipiifies 
under  one^  or  together ;  and  is  used  to  imply  that  the  .vords  or  syllables, 
between  which  it  is  placed,  are  to  be  taken  together  as  one  word. 

t  The  word  ellipsis  is  derived  from  the  Greek  language,  and  means  an 
pmisswn. 

X  The  word  apostrophe  is  derived  from  the  Greek  language,  and  siguiflea 
the  turning  awa/y,  or  omissioyi,  of  one  letter  or  more. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  31 

called  consist  of  four  commas ;  two  inverted,  or  upside  do\vTi,  at  the  be 
ginning  of  a  word,  phrase,  or  sentence  which  is  quoted  or  transcribed  from 
Bome  author  in  his  own  words  ;  and  two  ofliers,  in  then-  direct  position, 
placed  at  the  conclusion ;  as,  An  excellent  poet  says : 

"  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man." 

Sometimes  the  quotation  is  marked  by  single,  instead  of  double, 
*»ommas. 

The  diaeresis  =*=  consists  of  two  periods  placed  over  the  latter  of  two  vow- 
els ;  to  show  that  they  are  to  be  pronounced  in  separate  svUables ;  as, 
Laocoon,  Zoonomia,  cooperate. 

The  brace  is  employed  to  unite  several  lines  of  poetry,  or  to  connect 
a  number  of  words  ^vith  one  common  term;  and  it  is  also  used  to  prevent 
a  repetition  in  writing  or  printing ;  thus, 

"  "Waller  was  smooth ;  but  Dryden  taught  to  join 
The  varying  verse,  the  full-resounding  line, 
The  long  majestic  march  and  energy  divine." 

C-e-o-u- 


-e-o-u-s  "^ 
-i-o-u-s  C 
-c-i-o-u-s  C 
-i-o-u-s    ) 


C-i- 

-  Y  u  a     V  gjg  pronounced  like  shus. 
fe-c-i-o-u-s  V         ^ 
T 


The  cedilla,  or  cerilla,  is  a  curve  line  placed  under  the  letter  c,  to  show 
that  it  has  the  sound  of  s.  It  is  used  principally  in  words  derived  from 
the  French  language. 

Thus,  garqon,  in  which  word  the  (j  is  to  be  pronounced  like  s. 

The  accents  t  are  marks  used  to  signify  the  proper  pronunciation  of 
w)rds. 

The  accents  are  three  in  number ; 

The  grave  accent  thus,  ^ 
The  acute  accent ;  thus,  ' 
The  circumflex  accent ;  thus,  a 

The  grave  accent  is  represented  by  a  mark  placed  over  a  letter,  or  s_>i 
table,  to  show  that  it  must  be  pronounced  with  the  falling  inflection  of 
the  voice ;  as,  Reuthamir. 

The  acute  accent  is  represented  by  a  similar  mark,  pointing  in  the 
opposite  direction,  to  show  that  the  letter  or  syllable  must  be  pronounced 
with  the  rising  inflection  of  the  voice ;  thus.  Epicurean,  European. 

The  meaning  of  a  sentence  often  depends  on  the  kind  of  accent  which 
is  used  ;  thus,  the  following  sentence  if  the  acute  accent  be  used  on  the 
word  alone,  becomes  a  question. 

"  Pleased  thou  shalt  hear,  and  thou  alone  shalt  hear  ?  " 

But,  if  the  grave  accent  be  placed  on  the  word  alo72e,  it  becomes  a  simple 
declaration;  as, 


*  The  word  diceresis  is  derived  from  the  Greek  language,  and  signifies 
s  taking  away,  or  a  division. 

t  The  word  accent  is  derived  from  the  Latin  language,  and  signifies  tJu 
*ow^  ofth»  voice. 


82  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

"  Pleased  thou  shalt  hear,  and  thou  alone  shalt  hear." 

The  circumflex  accent  is  the  union  of  the  grave  and  acute  accents,  and 
indicates  that  the  syllable  on  which  it  is  placed  should  have  both  the 
rising  and  the  falling  inflection  of  the  voice- 

The  caret  *  is  a  mark  resembling  an  inverted  v,  placed  under  the  line 
It  is  never  used  in  printed  books,  but,  in  manuscripts,  it  shows  that 
something  has  been  accidentally  omitted ;  as, 

recited 
"  George  has  his  lesson." 

The  following  marks  are  references  j  and  are  generally  used  to  call 
attention  to  notes  on  words  or  sentences,  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page: 

The  Asterisk,  *  The  Parallels,  || 

The  Obelisk,  t  The  Paragraph,  IT 

The  Double  Obelisk,  t  The  Index,  a^ 

The  Section,  § 

When  many  notes  occur  on  a  page,  and  these  marks  are  all  exhausted, 
they  are  sometimes  doubled-  Figures  and  letters  are  also  sometimes 
used  instead  of  the  above  marks. 

It  is  proper  to  remark,  that,  in  some  books  the  section,  §,  and  the  para 
graph,  *I[,  are  used  to  mark  the  parts  of  a  composition,  which  in  writing 
or  printing  should  be  separated. 

A  paragraph  t  denotes  the  beginning  of  a  new  subject,  or  a  senten?e 
not  connected  with  the  foregoing. 

A  section  J  is  used  for  subdividing  a  chapter  into  smaller  parts. 

It  is  proper  here  to  remark,  that  every  composition  should  be  divided 
into  paragraphs,  when  the  sense  will  allow  the  separation.  DilFerent 
subjects,  unless  they  are  very  short,  or  very  numerous  in  a  small  compass 
should  be  separated  into  paragraphs. 

EXERCISES    IN   PUNCTUATION. 

Insert  Commas  in  their  proper  places  in  the  following  sentences. 

Wife  children  servants  all  that  could  be  found  were  savagely  slaugh- 
tered. 

He  had  been  bom  bred  and  educated  on  a  small  moorland  farm  whidi 
he  now  cultivated. 

Doing  to  others  as  we  wish  them  to  do  to  us  constitutes  the  fundamen 
tal  principle  of  Christian  charity. 

Julius  Caesar  wrote  in  a  clear  natural  correct  flowing  style. 


«  The  word  caret  is  derived  trom  the  Latin  language,  and  signifies  it  i\ 
wanting. 

t  The  word  paragraph  is  derived  from  the  Greek  language,  and  signifien 
an  ascription  in  the,  marrrin. 

t  The  word  section  is  derived  from  the  Latin  language,  and  siprniflesi  a 
aivision  or  cutting.  The  character  which  denotes  a  section  seems  to  ba 
made  of  ss,  and  to  be  an  abbreviation  of  the  words  signwn  scctionis,  tli« 
4\ga  of  the  section. 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  S3 

Climate  soil  laws  custom  food  and  other  accidental  differences  have 
produced  an  astonishing  variety  in  the  complexion  features  manners  and 
faculties  of  the  human  race. 

In  our  epistolary  correspondence  we  may  advise  dissuade  exhort  re- 
quest recommend  discuss  comfort  reconcile. 

Exercise  ferments  the  humors  casts  them  into  the  proper  channels 
throws  off  redundancies  and  assists  nature  in  her  necessary  operations. 

A  wise  man  will  examine  every  thing  coolly  impartially  accurately  and 
rationally. 

Homer  the  greatest  poet  of  antiquity  is  reported  to  have  been  blind. 

Milton  the  author  of  "  Paradise  Lost "  and  "  Kegained  "  was  blind 

I  am  my  dear  Sir  your  humble  servant. 

The  earth  like  a  tender  mother  nourishes  her  children. 

Harold  being  slain  the  conqueror  marched  immediately  to  London 

Swift  says  no  man  ever  wished  himself  younger. 

To  err  is  human ;  to  forgive  divine. 

The  great  Xerxes  upon  whom  fortune  had  lavished  all  her  favors  not 
content  with  being  master  of  powerful  armies  numerous  fleets  and  inex- 
haustible treasures  proposed  a  reward  to  any  one  who  should  invent  a 
new  pleasure. 

You  should  not  desire  says  an  ancient  Greek  author  even  the  thread 
of  another  man's  needle. 

She  let  concealment  like  a  worm  in  the  bud  feed  on  her  damask  cheek. 

Nature  has  wisely  determined  that  man  shall  want  an  appetite  in  the 
beginning  of  distempers  as  a  defence  against  their  increase. 

The  whole  circle  of  vices  like  shadows  towards  the  evening  of  life 
appear  enormous  to  a  thinking  person. 

You  are  not  to  suppose  that  the  fate  either  of  single  persons  of  empires 
or  of  the  whole  earth  depends  on  the  influence  of  the  stars. 

Insert  the  Comma,  Colon,  and  Semicolon  where  they  belong  in  the  following 
sentences. 

Green  is  generally  considered  the  most  refreshing  color  to  the  eye 
therefore  Providence  has  made  it  the  common  dress  of  nature. 

To  err  is  human  to  forgive  divine. 

The  aim  of  orators  is  victory  of  historians  truth  of  poets  admiration. 

Saint  Peter  is  painted  with  the  keys  Paul  with  a  sword  Andrew  vdth  a 
cross  James  the  Greater  with  a  pilgrim's  staff  and  a  gourd  bottle  James 
the  Less  with  a  fuller's  pole  John  vnth  a  cup  and  a  winged  serpent  Bar- 
tholomew with  a  knife  Philip  with  a  long  staff  or  cross  Thomas  with  a 
lance  Matthew  with  a  hatchet  Matthias  with  a  battle-axe  Simon  with  a 
saw  and  Jude  with  a  club. 

Some  place  their  bliss  in  action  some  in  ease 
Those  call  it  pleasure  and  contentment  these. 

Most  of  our  pleasures  may  be  regarded  as  imaginary  but  our  disqui- 
etudes may  be  considered  as  real. 

Chaucer  we  are  told  by  Dryden  followed  nature  every  where  but  that 
he  never  went  beyond  her. 

A  clownish  air  is  but  a  trifling  defect  yet  it  is  enough  to  make  a  ma» 
universally  disagreeable. 

In  the  New  Testament  as  in  the  dignified  and  sober  litn/gy  of  thf 
Omrch  we  see  deep  humility  but  not  loathsome  abjeetness  sincere  repent 


64:  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

ance  but  not  agonizing  horror  steadfast  faith  but  not  presumptuous  asstir 
ance  lively  1  ope  but  not  seraphic  abstraction  the  deep  sense  of  human 
infirmity  but  not  the  unblushing  profession  of  leprous  depravity  the  holy 
and  heavenly  communion  but  not  vague  experiences  nor  the  intemperate 
trance. 

Do  not  flatter  yourself  with  the  idea  of  enjoying  perfect  happiness 
there  is  no  such  thing  in  the  world. 

Keep  close  to  thy  business  it  will  keep  thee  from  wickedness  poverty 
and  shame. 

The  path  of  truth  is  a  plain  and  it  is  a  safe  path  that  of  falsehood  is  a 
perplexing  maze. 

Do  not  flatter  yourself  with  the  idea  of  enjoying  perfect  happiness  for 
there  is  no  such  thing  in  the  world. 

Were  all  books  reduced  to  their  quintessence  many  a  bulky  author 
would  make  his  appearance  in  a  penny  paper  there  would  be  no  such 
thing  in  nature  as  a  folio  the  works  of  an  age  would  be  contained  on  a 
few  shelves  not  to  mention  millions  of  volumes  that  would  be  utterly 
annihilated. 

Insert  the  Period,  C^stion,  and  Exclamation  Point,  where  they  respectively 
belong  in  the  following  sentences. 

Honor  all  men  Fear  God  Truth  is  the  basis  of  every  virtue  Every  de- 
viation from  veracity  is  criminal  The  Latin  language  is  now  called  a  dead 
language  because  it  is  not  spoken  as  the  mother  tongue  of  any  nation 
America  was  discovered  in  the  night  of  Oct  11th  O  S  AD  1492  Have 
you  ever  read  its  history  The  Rambler  was  >vritten  by  Samuel  Johnson 
LL  D  Sir  Josh  Reynolds  F  R  S  was  a  very  distinguished  artist 

In  the  formation  of  man  what  wondeiful  proofs  of  the  magnificence  of 
God's  works  and  how  poor  and  trifling  in  comparison  are  the  productions 
of  man  Wliy  do  you  weave  around  you  this  web  of  occupation  and  then 
complain  that  you  cannot  break  it  How  superior  is  the  internal  construc- 
tion of  the  productions  of  nature  to  all  the  works  of  men 


XV. 

DERIVATION  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  WORDS. 

"Words,  with  regard  to  their  origin,  are  divided  into  primi- 
tive c"'1  derivative ;  and,  with  regai-d  to  their  form,  into  sim- 
ple and  comprund. 

A  primitive  word  is  a  word  which  is  in  its  original  form, 
imd  is  not  derived  from  any  other  word;  as,  man,  good, 
content. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  .'i. 

A  derivative  word  is  that  winch  is  derived  from  anothei 
word ;  as,  manful,  manhood,  manly,  manliness ;  goodness,  good- 
ly, &c. ;  contented,  contentment,  contenting,  contentedly,  &c. ; 
which  are  derived  respectively  from  the  primitive  words,  man, 
good,  content. 

A  simple  word  consists  of  one  word,  not  compounded ;  as 
sea,  able,  self. 

A  compound  word  is  a  word  that  is  made  up  of  two  or  more 
words,  or  of  one  word  and  some  syllable  added ;  as,  sea-water, 
unable,  myself.  * 

Words  are  found,  on  examination,  to  be  reducible  to  groups  or  families, 
and  are  related  to  each  other  by  identity  of  origin  and  similarity  of  signi- 
fication. Thus  the  words  justly,  justice,  justify,  justification,  justiciary^ 
adjust,  readjust,  unjust,  injustice,  &c.,  are  all  kindred  words,  connected 
with  the  primitive  word  just.  The  primitive  words  of  a  language  are 
generally  few  in  niimher,  and  language  is  rendered  copious  and  expressive 
by  the  formation  of  derivatives  and  compounds  from  the  primitives. 

When  a  syllable  is  added,  in  the  composition  of  words,  it  takes  its 
name  from  the  position  in  which  it  is  placed  with  regard  to  the  word.  K 
it  is  placed  before  the  word  it  is  called  a  prefix,  if  at  the  end  of  the  word, 
it  is  called  an  affix. 

In  derivative  words,  there  are  generally  three,  and  sometimes  four 
things  to  be  considered ;  namely,  first,  the  root,  from  wliich  the  word  is 
derived;  secondly,  the  prefix;  thirdly,  the  affix;  fourthly,  the  letters 
which  are  added  for  the  sake  of  sound,  and  which  may  be  called  euphonic 
letters. 

The  root  is  cometimes  called  the  radical  letters  of  a  word.  Thus,  from 
the  Latin  word  vmio,  which  signifies  to  come,  and  its  variation  venium, 
many  English  words  are  derived,  in  the  following  manner :  The  first 
three  letters  of  the  word  are  taken,  as  the  radical  letters,  or  ^oot  of  the 
word.  By  adding  the  prefix  contra,  which  signifies  against,  we  have  con- 
traven ;  Ui  which  is  added  the  euphonic  letter  e,  to  lengthen  the  last  sylla- 
ble, and  thus  is  composed  the  word  contravene,  which  means  to  come  against, 
or  oppose.  In  a  similar  manner,  we  have  the  words  prevent^  invent,  circum 
vent,  convex,  and  their  derivatives,  t 


*  Some  compound  words  are  formed  by  the  union  of  two  other  words ; 
as  seor^water,  semi-annual.  Such  words  are  generally  recognized  by  the 
hyphen  placed  between  the  words  composing  the  compound.  Mr.  Goold 
Brown  says,  that  '■'■permanent  compounds  are  consolidated^''  that  is,  are 
written  without  the  hyphen.  But  it  is  contended  that  "  glass-house  "  is  as 
much  a  permanent  compound  as  "  bookseller.'*  The  truth  is,  that  no  better 
reason  can  be  given  for  the  use  or  omission  of  the  h_>'phen,  than  caprice. 

t  The  student  who  wishes  to  studj  this  department  of  etymology,  will 
find  it  more  fully  displayed  in  Home  Tooke's  "  Diversions  of  Purley ; " 
Rice's  "  Composition,"  McCulloch's  "  Grammar,"  and  Towne's  "  Analysis 
of  Derivative  Words."  In  the  first  mentioned  of  these  works,  the  "  Diver 
Bions  of  Purley,"  may  be  found  a  learned  and  ingenious  account  of  the  de 
rivatiAn  %nd  meaning  of  many  4 "  the  adverbs,  conjunctions  and  preposi 
Htli-  »f  -ivn  English  language. 


36  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Man;  of  the  prefixes  used  in  the  composition  of  English  words  arc 
Latin  or  Greek  prepositions  5  and  the  efi'ect  which  they  produce  upon  the 
meaning  of  the  root  contributes  much  to  the  copiousness  of  the  English 
language. 

There  are  so  many  other  ways  of  deriving  words  from  one  another, 
that  it  would  be  extremely  difficult  and  nearly  impossible  to  enumerate 
them  A  few  instances,  only,  of  the  various  modes  of  derivation,  can  Ix. 
given  here. 

Some  nouns  are  derived  from  other  nouns,  or  from  adjectives,  by  add- 
ing the  aflSx  hood,  or  head,  ship,  ry,  wick,  rick,  dom,  ian,  ment,  and  age;  as, 
from  -man,  by  adding  the  affix  hood^  comes  manhood,  from  knight,  knight- 
hood, &a,  from  false,  falsehood,  &c. 

Nouns  ending  in  hood,  or  head,  are  such  as  signify  character  or  quality ; 
as,  manhood,  falsehood. 

Nouns  ending  in  ship  are  those  that  signify  office,  employment,  state,  or 
condition ;  as  lordship,  stewardship,  hardship. 

Nouns  ending  in  ery  signify  action  or  habit;  as,  slavery,  knavery 
bravery. 

Nouns  ending  in  vyick,  rick,  and  dom,  denote  dominion,  jurisdiction,  of 
condition ;  as  bailiwick,  bishoprick,  dukedom,  kingdom,  freedom. 

Nouns  ending  in  ian  signify  profession ;  as,  physician,  musician,  &c. 

Nouns  that  end  in  ment  or  age  signify  the  act,  or  habit ;  as  command- 
ment, usage. 

Nouns  3iat  end  in  ard  denote  character  or  habit;  as  drunkard,  dotard 

Nouns  ending  in  kin,  ling,  ing,  ock,  d,  generally  signify  diminution ;  » 
lamb,  lambkin,  duck,  duckling,  hill,  hillock,  cock,  cockerel. 

Nouns  ending  in  tude,  or  ude,  generally  signify  state,  condition,  or  a 
pacity ;  as  plenitude,  aptitude,  &c. 

ALPHABETICAL    SYNOPSIS    OF   PREFIXES. 

A,  Ab,  Abs,  from.  De,  from,  down. 

Ad,  Ac,  Al,  Ap,  At,  &C.,  I0.  Deca,  ten. 

Arabi,  both.  Pi,  Dis,  &c.,  separation,  noL 

Amb,  amphi,  round.  Dia,  through. 

Ante,  before.  Dys,  bctd,  difficulty  hard. 

Anti,  against.  E,  Ex,  El,  Em;  Er,  fcc^  out  ot 

Ana,  hack.  En,  Em,  in. 

Apo,  Aph,  from.  Epi,  upon. 

Auto,  one^s  self.  Equi,  equal. 

Be,  to  make.  Extra,  h^/ond. 

Bene,  well.  For,  against. 

Bi.  Bis,  two,  half.  Fore,  irrior. 

Biblio,  book.  Geo,  the  earth. 

Bio,  life.  Hetero,  of  dii^ers  kinds. 

Centu,  hundred.  Hex,  Hexa,  six. 

Chrono,  time.  Homo,  of  one  kind. 

Circum,  rotind.  Hydro,  water. 

Co,  Con,  Col,  Com,  Cor.  with.  Hyper,  over. 

Contra,  against.  In,  Im,  B,  not,  with  an  adje' 

Cosmo,  Me  world.  tive,  into,  witli  a  verb.  on. 

C«»unter,  opjx^ite.  Inter,  among. 


AIDS    TO   ENOLISH   COMPOSITION. 


33 


Intro,  mthin. 

Juri,  legal. 

Juxta,  near. 

Litho,  stone. 

Male,  evil. 

Manu,  hand. 

Mis,  error. 

Mono,  one, 

Multi,  many. 

Myth,  fabdous. 

Noct,  night. 

Non,  Ne,  not. 

Ob,  Oc.  &c.,  before,  against. 

Oct,  eight. 

Omni,  all. 

Ornitho,  bird. 

Ortho,  right. 

Oste,  bone. 

Out,  beyond. 

Over,  above. 

Pan,  all. 

Para,  against. 

Penta,  j^ue. 

Per,  through. 

Peri,  around. 

Phil,  friendly. 

Physi,  nature. 

Pleni,  /u/Z. 

Poly,  many. 

Post,  o/ier. 

Pre,  6e/bre. 


Preter,  beyond. 
Pro,  6e/ore,  oirf. 
Pyro,  ^re. 
Quad,  ^ur. 
Re,  again. 
Retro,  ftocifc. 
Se,  separation. 
Semi.        ] 
Demi,    f-MT 

Sex,  sir. 
Sine,  toithout. 
Soli,  aZowe. 
Steno,  sAor^, 
Stereo,  sdid. 
Sub,  Sue,  &c.,  under 
Subter,  under. 
Super,  Supra,  abow 
Sur,  over. 

Syn,  Syl,  &c.,  unth 
Tetra,  j^r. 
Theo,  God. 
Topo,  place. 
Trans,  across. 
Tri,  three. 
Typo,  fype. 
Under,  beneath. 
Uni,  owe. 
With,  opposition 
Zoo,  animal  life. 


ALPHABETICAL    SYNOPSIS    OP  AFFLa^aS. 


Age,  rank,  office. 

Ance,  ancy,   \ 

Ence,  ency,    j- sfette  or  act  o^ 

Ant,  ent,        J 

Ate,  ary,  having. 

Ble,  <Aa<  rway  be. 

Bleness,  the  quality  of  being  able. 

Bly,  in  a  manner. 

Cy,  ty,  y,  ity,  state,  condition. 

En,  in. 

Er,  or,  an,  ian,  ex,  ess,  ee,  eer,  ist, 

ite,  san,  zen,  the  person  who. 
Fy,  to  make. 
les,  science,  art. 

Ion,  ity,  ment,  the  state  or  act  of. 
Ish,  some  degree. 


Ism,  doctrine,  skue. 

Ive,  ic,  ical,  ile,  Ine,  ing,  it,  iaL  ent 

ant,  pertaining  to,  having  the  qua* 

ity,  relating  to. 
Ize,  to  make. 
Less,  unthout. 
Ly,  like,  resembling. 
Ness,  qtuditv  of. 
Old,  resembling. 
Ous,  ose,      )  nature  of. 
Ory,  some,  S  ^i^i  full  of 
Ric,  dom,  possession. 
Ship,  o^ce. 
Ude,  state  of  being. 
Ure,  orf  of,  state  of  heatg 
Ward,  in  a  direction. 


LATIN. 

8AXON. 

lATlN. 

Timid. 

Height, 

Altitude. 

Velocity. 

Lifeless, 

Exanimate. 

Effeminate. 

Yearly, 

Annual. 

Edifice. 

Watery, 

Aqueous. 

Paucity. 

Hearer, 

Auditor. 

AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


AFFIXES    TO    AFFIXES. 

Ave,  ated,  ating,  ater,  ator,  ately,  ateness,  ation,  ative,  atory,  able,  ably 
ableness,  ability,  ty's,  ties,  ties'. 
Ant,  antly,  ance,  ancy,  ancy's,  ancies,  ancies'. 
Fid,  fully,  fulness. 

Fy,  fies,  fiest,  fied,  fying,  fier,  fication,  cative,  cator. 
At,  ally,  alness,  alism,  alist,  ality,  ty's,  &c 
Zze,  ized,  izing,  ization,  ism,  ic,  izable. 
Ous,  ously,  ousness,  osity,  ity,  y,  ty. 
Ive,  ively,  ivencss,  ivity. 
He,  ilely,  ileness,  ility. 

The  English  language  has,  in  many  Instances,  two  sets  of  derivative 
words,  expressive  of  the  same  thing,  the  one  of  Saxon,  and  the  other  of 
Latin  origin.    Thus, 

8AX0N. 

Fearful, 

Swiftness, 

Womanish, 

Building, 

Fewness, 

And,  in  many  instances,  the  nouns  are  of  Saxon  origin,  while  the  cor- 
responding adjectives  are  from  the  Latin.     Thus, 

KOUNS  FROM  THE  SAXON.       ADJECTIVES  FBOM  THE  LATIN. 

Beginning,  Initial. 

Body,  Corporeal. 

Brother,  Fraternal. 

Father,  Paternal. 

Mother,  Maternal. 

Cat,  Feline. 

Day,  Diurnal. 

Dog,  Canine. 

Earth,  Terrestrial. 

Flock,  Gregarious. 

Flour,  Farinaceous. 

Glass,  Vitreous,  &c. 

The  student  is  now  prepared  to  write  a  list  of  woi-ds  de- 
rived from  the  proposed  simple  words,  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing 

£Jxample» 
From  the  word  p'esSj  the  following  words  are  darived 

Pressor,  pressed,  pression, 

pressure,  pressive,  pressinglv. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


39 


depress, 
depression,  &c. 
impress, 
impression,  &c. 
re-impress,  &c. 
compress, 
compression,  &c. 
uncompress, 


uncompressed,  &c.    oppressor, 

repress,  oppression,  &c. 

repressed,  suppress, 

repression,  suppressor, 

express,  suppression,  &c. 

expression,  insuppress,  &c. 

oppress,  unsuppressed,  &c. 

JSxercises. 


Write  a  list  of  words  derived  from  the  following  words  or  roots  by  ada 
ag  the  prefixes,  suffixes,  &c.,  that  have  been  explained. 

Faith. 

Health. 

Pity. 

Hope. 

Mercy. 

Art 

Care. 

Need. 

Fear. 

Shame. 

Respect. 

Create. 

Fine. 

Scribe. 

Argue 

Sense. 

Lude- 

Join. 

Eeal. 

Large. 

Form. 

Fense. 

Move. 

Spect. 


Jure. 

Right. 

Append. 

Marry. 

Good. 

Absolve. 

Merge. 

Idol. 

Abridge. 

Tend. 

Law. 

Answer. 

Stand. 

Author. 

Aspire. 

Run. 

Contract. 

Pride. 

Ply. 

Present. 

Blame. 

Range. 

Attend. 

Bless. 

Create. 

Moderate. 

Caprice. 

Pose. 

Virtue. 

Censure. 

Graphic. 

Use. 

Caution. 

Fac  and 

Presume. 

Cite. 

Factum.* 

Separate. 

Commune. 

Divide. 

Critic. 

Conceal. 

Improve. 

False. 

Correct. 

Profess. 

Fire. 

Reform. 

Succeed. 

Full. 

Defy. 

Deduce. 

Frolic. 

Define. 

Defend. 

Fortune. 

Discover. 

Resolve. 

Multiply. 

Elect. 

Calumny. 

Note.    ' 

Elevate. 

Arm. 

Conform. 

Fancy. 

Peace. 

Hinder. 

Faction. 

Love. 

Book. 

Fault. 

Laugh. 

Apply. 

Favor. 

*  The  origin  of  this  word  is  the  Latin  verb  facio,  and  its  supine  factum^ 
which  signifies  to  make,  to  do,  or  to  cause,  and  it  enters,  in  some  form,  into 
the  composition  of  more  than  five  hundred  of  our  English  words.  The 
word  pono,  and  its  supine  podtum,  furnish  250  words  ;  plico,  200 ;  fero  and 
latum,  19S;  specio,  177;  viitto  and  missimi,  114:',  te^ieo  and  tentitm,  168 ; 
ea/peo  and  captitm.,  197  ;  tendo,  tensum,  and  tentium,  162 ;  duco  and  dtictiim, 
IDo  ;  logos,  (from  the  Greek  language,)  156  ;  ^ro;?//.©,  152.  These  twelve 
words  enter,  in  some  shape,  into  the  composition  of  nearly  2500  English 
words.  From  154  Greek  and  Latin  primitives,  nearly  13,000  English  wordi 
are  derived,  or  are  afib'^ted  in  their  signification.  See  Towne's  Analysis  of 
'Derivative  Wot-ds. 


40 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


Figure. 

Mount. 

Motion. 

Form. 

Open. 

Rebel. 

Fury. 

Peace. 

Remark. 

Grace. 

Potent. 

Represent. 

Harm 

Prefer. 

Secret 

Humor. 

Presume. 

Spirit 

Imitate. 

Proper. 

Subscribe. 

Indulge 

Pure. 

Suffice. 

Moral. 

Beason. 

Teach. 

Tolerate. 

Tradition. 

Tremble. 

Value. 

Vapor. 

Vivid. 

Wit 


XVL 


SYN0NYME8. 

Synonymes  are  words  having  precisely  the  same  meaning. 
The  number  of  words,  in  any  language,  which  are  strictly 
synonomous,  are  few ;  but,  as  was  stated  in  the  last  lesson, 
in  the  English  language  there  are  many  instances  of  worda, 
derived  from  different  sources,  expressive  of  precisely  the 
same  idea.  Thus,  the  words  swiftness  and  velocity,  womanish 
and  effeminate,  building  and  edijice,  fewness  and  paucity, 
hrotherly  and  fraternal,  fatherly  and  paternal,  motherly  and 
maternal,  yearly  and  annual,  height  and  altitude,  are  words  of 
precisely  the  same  import. 

Although,  with  exceptions  of  the  kind  just  enumerated,  the  words 
strictly  synonomous  are  few,  yet  it  is  often  the  case  that  one  word  of 
similar  meaning  may  be  substituted  in  a  sentence  for  another,  without 
materially  altering  the  idea  intended  to  be  expressed.  Thus,  in  the  sen- 
ence,  "  I  design  to  show  the  difference  in  these  vxirds^  the  word  design  may 
be  changed  into  intend^  purpose,  propose ^  or  mean ;  thus. 

I  design  to  show  the  difference  in  these  words. 

I  intend  to  show  the  difference  in  these  wo-ds. 

I  purpose,  propose,  or  mean  to  show  tlie  diflerence,  &c. 
The  word  show  may,  in  like  manner,  be  changed  into  explain,  point  out^  or 
illustrate ;  the  word  difference  may  be  changed  into  distinction,  and  expre*- 
sions  may  be  substituted  for  words,  without  materially  altering  the  mean 
ing  of  the  sentence. 

Such  exercises  as  these  give  a  command  of  language  to  the  student, 
and  are  of  great  use  as  a  preparation  for  exercises  in  prose,  as  well  aa 
verse.  But  to  the  poet  especially  a  familiar  acquaintance  with  expres 
sions  of  similar  meaning  is  absolutely  indispensable.  Confined  as  he  is 
to  certain  rules,  it  is  often  the  case,  that  a  long  word  must  l)e  substituted 
for  a  short  one,  or  a  short  one  fbr  a  long,  in  order  to  produce  the  ncceesm- 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  41 

ry  succession  of  syllables  to  constitute  the  measure,  or  the  hannouy,  of 
ms  verses. 

It  has  been  stated,  that  few  words  are  strictly  synonymous.  Although, 
in  the  sentence  just  recited,  namely,  "  I  design  to  show  the  diiference  in 
these  words,"  it  has  been  observed,  that  the  words  intend,  purpose,  propose, 
or  viean,  may  be  substituted  for  design,  without  materially  altering  the 
sense,  yet  it  must  be  understood,  that  the  words  themselves  are  really 
different  in  meaning.  The  word  design  properly  signifies  to  mark  out,  as 
umith  a  pencil;  purpose  signifies  to  set  before  one's  mind  as  an  object  of  pursuit ; 
mean  signifies  to  have  in  the  mind;  propose  properly  implies  to  offer,  and  m- 
tend  expresses  the  bending  of  the  mind  totvard  an  object.  * 

The  words  difficulties,  embarrassments,  and  troubles,  are  often  used  as 
words  of  precisely  similar  signification ;  but  there  is,  in  reality,  considera- 
ble difference  in  their  signification.  The  three  terms  are  all  applicable  to 
a  person's  concerns  in  life,  but  difficulties  relate  to  the  facility  of  accom- 
plishing an  undertaking,  and  imply,  that  it  is  not  easily  done.  Embarrass- 
ments  relate  to  the  confusion  attending  a  state  of  debt,  and  trouble  to  the 
pain  which  is  the  natural  consequence  of  not  fulfilling  engagements  or 
answering  demands.  Of  the  three  words,  difficulties  expresses  the  least, 
and  troubles  the  most.  "  A  young  man,  on  his  entrance  into  the  world, 
will  unavoidably  experience  difficulties,  if  not  provided  with  ample  means 
in  the  outset.  But,  let  his  means  be  ever  so  ample,  if  he  have  not  pru- 
dence, and  talents  fitted  for  business,  he  will  hardly  keep  himself  free 
from  embarrassments,  which  are  the  greatest  troubles  that  can  arise  to  disturb 
the  peace  of  a  man's  mind." 

The  words  difficulty,  obstacle,  and  impediment,  although  frequently  used 
as  synonymous,  have  nice  distinctions  in  their  meanings.  Difficulty,  as 
has  already  been  observed,  relates  to  the  ease  with  which  a  thing  is  done, 
obstacle  signifies  the  thing  which  stands  in  the  way  between  the  person  and 
the  object  he  has  in  view ;  and  impediment  signifies  the  thing  which  entan- 
gles the  feet.  All  of  these  terms  include  in  their  signification,  that  which 
interferes  either  with  the  actions  or  views  of  men.  The  difficulty  lies 
most  in  the  nature  and  circumstances  of  the  thing  itself  5  the  obstacle  and 
impediment  consist  of  that  which  is  external  or  foreign ;  the  difficulty  inter- 
feres with  the  completion  of  any  work ;  the  obstacle  interferes  with  the  at- 
tainment of  any  end ;  the  impediment  interrupts  the  progress  and  prevents 
the  execution  of  one's  wishes ;  the  difficulty  embarrasses ;  it  suspends  the 
powers  of  acting  or  deciding;  the  obstacle  opposes  itself;  it  is  properly 
met  in  the  way,  and  intervenes  between  us  and  our  object ;  the  impedimem 
shackles  and  puts  a  stop  to  our  proceeding ;  we  speak  of  encountering  a 
difficulty,  surmounting  an  obstacle,  and  removing  an  impediment ;  we  go 
through  difficulty,  over  an  obstacle,  and  pass  by  impediments.  The  disposition 
of  the  mind  often  occasions  more  difficulties  in  negociations,  than  the  sub 
jccts  themselves ;  the  eloquence  of  Demosthenes  was  the  greatest  obsta^h 
which  Philip  of  Macedon  experienced  in  his  political  career ;  ignorance 
in  the  language  is  the  greatest  impediment  which  a  foreigner  experiences 
in  the  pursuit  of  any  object  out  of  his  own  country. 

*The  student  who  wishes  a  fuller  explanation  of  the  difference  be 
tween  these  words  is  referred  to  that  very  valuable  work  entitled,  "  English 
Synonymes  explained  in  Alphabetical  Order,  with  copious  Illustrations  and 
Examples  drawn  from  the  best  Writers,  by  George  Crabb,  of  Jf  jgdaJeii 
HaU,  Oxford." 

4* 


42  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

The  following  instances  show  a  difference  in  the  meaning 
of  words  reputed  synonymous,  and  point  out  the  use  of  at- 
tending, with  care  and  strictness,  to  the  exact  import  of 
words. 

Custom,  habit.  Custom  respects  the  action ;  habit,  the 
actor.  By  custom,  we  mean  the  frequent  repetition  of  the 
tsame  act ;  by  habit,  the  effect  which  that  repetition  produces 
on  the  mind  or  body.  By  the  custom  of  walking  often  in  the 
streets,  one  acquires  a  habit  of  idleness. 

Pride,  vanity.  Pride  makes  us  esteem  ourselves ;  vanity 
makes  us  desire  the  esteem  of  others.  It  is  just  to  say,  that 
a  man  is  too  proud  to  be  vain. 

Haughtiness,  disdain.  Haughtiness  is  founded  on  the  high 
opinion  we  entertain  of  ourselves ;  disdain,  on  the  low  opinion 
we  have  of  others. 

Only,  alone.  Only  imports,  that  there  is  no  other  of  the 
same  kind ;  alone  imports  being  accompanied  by  no  other. 
An  only  child  is  one  that  has  neither  brother  nor  sister ;  a 
child  alone  is  one  who  is  left  by  itself.  There  is  a  difference, 
therefore,  in  precise  language,  between  these  two  phrases : 
" Virtue  only  makes  us  happy;"  and  "Virtue  alone  makes 
us  happy." 

Wisdom,  prudence.  Wisdom  leads  us  to  speak  and  act 
what  is  most  proper.  Prudence  prevents  our  speaking  or 
acting  improperly. 

Entire,  complete.  A  thing  is  entire  when  it  wants  none  of 
its  parts ;  complete  when  it  wants  none  of  the  appendages 
that  belong  to  it.  A  man  may  have  an  entire  house  to  him- 
self, and  yet  not  have  one  complete  apartment. 

Surprised,  astonished,  amazed,  confounded.  I  am  surpris- 
ed with  what  is  new  or  unexpected ;  I  am  astonished  at  what 
is  vast  or  great ;  I  am  amazed  at  what  is  incomprehensible ;  T 
am  confounded  by  what  is  shocking  or  terrible. 

Tranquillity,  peace,  calm.  Tranquillity  respects  a  situation 
free  from  trouble,  considered  in  itself;  peace,  the  same  situa- 
tion with  respect  to  any  causes  that  might  interrupt  it ;  calm, 
with  regard  to  a  disturbed  situation  going  before  or  following 
it.  A  good  man  enjoys  tranquillity,  in  himself;  peace,  with 
others  ;  and  calm,  after  a  storm. 

In  a  similar  manner,  differences  can  be  pointed  out  in  the  words  con 
fiicr^i  vanquish,  iniMue,m^ermme,  and  ^im'ount.  Chtiqi(rr  8ij:^nifies  to  seek  or 
trj  to  gain  an  ohject     vanquish  implies  the  binding  of  an  individual;  subdut 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  43 

sjguifies  to  givt.  or  put  under;  overcome  expresses  the  coming  over  or  getting 
the  mastery  over  one ;  surmount  signifies  to  mount  over  or  to  rise  above  any  one. 
Persons  or  things  are  conquered  or  subdued ;  persons,  only,  are  vanquished. 
An  enemy  or  a  country  is  conquered;  a  foe  is  vanquished;  people  are 
subdued;  pi-ejudices  and  prepo.' sessions  are  overcome;  obstacles  are  sur- 
mounted. We  conquer  an  enemy  by  whatever  means  we  gain  the  mastery 
over  him  ;  we  vanquish  him,  when  by  force  we  make  him  yield ;  we  subdue 
him  by  whatever  means  Ave  check  in  him  the  spirit  of  resistance.  A 
Christian  tries  to  conquer  his  enemies  by  kindness  and  generosity;  a 
waiTior  tries  to  vanquish  them  in  the  field ;  a  prudent  monarch  tries  to 
subdue  his  rebel  subjects  by  a  due  mixture  of  clemency  and  rigor.  One 
may  be  vanquished  in  a  single  battle ;  one  is  subdued  only  by  the  most 
violent  and  persevering  measures. 

William  the  First  conquered  England  by  vanquishing  his  rival,  Harold ; 
after  which  he  completely  subdued  the  English. 

Vanquish  is  used  only  in  its  proper  sense ;  conquer  and  subdue  are  like- 
wise employed  figuratively,  in  which  sense  they  are  analogous  to  overcome 
and  surmount.  That  is  conquered  and  subdued  which  is  in  the  mind ;  that 
is  overcome  and  surmounted  which  is  either  internal  or  external.  We 
conquer  and  overcome  what  makes  no  great  resistance ;  we  subdue  and  sur 
mount  what  is  violent  and  strong  in  its  opposition.  Dislikes,  attachments, 
and  feelings  in  general,  either  for  or  against,  are  conquered;  unruly  and 
tumultuous  passions  are  to  be  subdued :  a  man  conquers  himself,  he  subdues 
his  spirit.  One  conquers  by  ordinary  means  and  efforts,  one  subdues  by 
extraordinary  means.  It  requires  determination  and  force  to  conquer  and 
overcome;  patience  and  perseverance  to  subdue  and  surmount.  Whoever 
aims  at  Christian  perfection  must  strive  wiih  God's  assistance  to  conquer 
avarice,  pride,  and  every  inordinate  propensity ;  to  subdue  wrath,  anger, 
lust,  and  every  carnal  appetite,  to  overcome  temptations,  to  vanquish  the 
tempter,  and  to  surmount  trials  and  impediments,  which  obstruct  his 
course. 

The  nice  distinctions  which  exist  among  some  words  com- 
monly reputed  synonymous  having  now  been  pointed  out,  the 
student  may  proceed  to  the  exercises  of  this  Lesson  according 
to  the  following 

Example. 

The  words  vision,  way,  formerly,  weaken,  unimportant,  see, 
and  think,  are  proposed ;  and  it  is  required  to  find  a  list  of 
words,  having  a  meaning  similar  to  them  respectively. 

Vision,  apparition,  phantom,  spectre  ghost. 
Way,  manner,  method,  mode,  course,  means. 
Formerly,  in  times  past,  in  old  times,  in  days  of  yore,  an 
ciently,  in  ancient  times. 

Weaken,  enfeeble,  debilitate,  enervate,  invalidate. 
Ummportant,  insignificant,  immaterial,  inconsiderable 


44  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

See,  perceive,  observe,  behold,  look  at. 
Think,  reflect,   ponder,   muse,   imagine,  suppose,  believe 
deem,  consider.* 

In  the  sentences  which  follow,  it  is  required  to  change  the 
words  as  in  the  following  examples.  The  student  will  notice 
that  every  change  of  words  will,  in  most  cases,  produce  some 
corresponding  change  in  the  idea ;  but,  as  the  object  of  the 
exercise   is  to  give   him  a  command  of  language,  it  is  not 

*  It  may  here  be  remarked  that  phrases,  as  well  as  words,  may  be 
expressed  by  appropriate  synonymes.  Technically  speaking,  the  term 
Bvnonyme  is  generally  applied  to  simple  terms.  But  a  compound  term  or 
phrase  mav  be  sometimes  expressed  by  a  synonymous  word ;  and  a  simple 
term  may  be  also  expressed  by  a  synonymous  phrase.  It  will  be  unneces- 
sary to  present  in  this  place,  any  list  of  words  for  the  pupil  to  be  exercised 
upon,  as  the  living  teacher,  or  the  pupil  himself,  may  easily  select  them 
from  any  volume  at  hand.  But  it  may  here  be  remsu-ked  fliat  exercises 
on  synonymous  phrases  may  be  considered  as  more  valuable  than  those  on 
simple  terms,  because  they  may  generally  be  expressed  with  greater  pre- 
cision. But  the  value  of  exercise*  of  both  kinds  is  clearly  and  forcibly  set 
forth  by  Mr.  Murray,  in  the  '  Exercises '  appended  to  his  larger  Grammar, 
in  the  following  language : 

'  On  variety  of  Expression.  Besides  the  practice  of  transposing  the 
parts  of  sentences,  the  compiler  recommends  to  tutors,  frequently  to  exer- 
cise their  pupils,  in  exhibiting  some  of  the  various  modes  in  which  the  same 
sentiment  may  be  properly  expressed.  This  practice  will  extend  their 
knowledge  of  the  language,  alford  a  variety  or  expression,  and  habituate 
them  to  deliver  their  sentiments  with  clearness,  ease,  and  propriety.  It 
will  likewise  enable  those  who  may  be  engaged  in  studying  other  langua 
ges,  not  only  to  construe  them  with  more  facility  into  Lnglish,  but  also  to 
observe  and  applv  more  readilv,  many  of  the  turns  and  phrases,  which  are 
best  adapted  to  the  genius  of  those  languages.' 

A  few  examples  of  this  kind  of  exercise,  will  be  sufficient  to  explain  the 
nature  of  it,  and  to  show  its  utility. 

The  brother  deserved  censure  more  than  his  sister. 

The  sister  was  less  reprehensible  than  her  brother. 

The  sister  did  not  deserve  reprehension  so  much  as  her  brother. 

Reproof  was  more  due  to  the  brother,  than  to  the  sister. 

I  will  attend  the  conference,  if  I  can  do  it  conveniently. 

I  intend  to  be  at  the  conference,  unless  it  should  be  inconvenient. 

If  I  can  do  it  with  convenience,  I  purpose  to  be  present  at  the  conference. 

If  it  can  be  done  without  inconvenience,  I  shall  not  fail  to  attend  the  con 
ference. 

I  shall  not  absent  myself  from  the  conference,  unless  circumstances  ren 
der  it  neccssarv. 

I  propose  to  De  pre.sijnt  at  the  conference,  if  I  can  do  so  consistently  witk 
my  other  engagements. 

1  purpose  to  DO  at  the  conference,  unless  I  am  prevented  by  other  avocft^ 
tions. 

Unless  I  am  restrained  by  other  imperative  duties,  I  shall  certainly  be  a. 
the  conference. 

I  will  be  at  the  conference  if  nothing  unforeseen  prevents. 

If  1  am  master  of  my  own  time  I  will  not  neglect  the  conference. 

I  sliall  by  no  means  absent  mj  self  from  the  conference  '\l  1  .»n  pc«8ibii 
atteud  it 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  45 

deemed  imj  ortant  in  theso  Exercises  to  exact  strict  verbal 
accuracy. 

Example  1st. 

He  continued  the  work  without  stopping. 

He  continued  the  work  without  resting. 

He  continued  the  work  without  cessation. 

He  continued  the  work  vdthout  intermission. 

He  continued  the  work  without  delay. 

He  continued  the  work  without  leaving  off. 

He  continued  the  work  without  interruption. 

He  continued  the  work  without  obstacle. 

He  continued  the  work  without  impediment,  &c. 

Exam'ple  2d. 

He  is  free  from  care. 
He  is  free  from  solicitude. 
He  is  exempted  from  anxiety. 
He  is  without  concern,  &c. 

Example  3d. 

I  found  that  he  was  an  enemy. 
I  found  that  he  was  a  foe. 
I  found  that  he  was  an  adversary. 
I  found  that  he  was  an  opponent. 
I  found  that  he  was  an  antagonist. 

Exercises.  , 

IJaw  and  order  are  not  remembered. 

On  that  elevated  ground  where  the  verdant  turf  looks  dark  with  fire,  ye* 
terday  stood  a  noble  house. 

Thinking  deeply  on  the  nature  of  my  existence,  the  contradictions  I  had 
mffered  filled  me  with  humbleness. 

I  began  to  think  that  there  was  some  deception  in  the  sensation  conveyed 
by  my  eye?. 

How  loved,  how  valued  once  avails  thee  not, 
To  whom  connected  or  by  whom  begot ; 
A  pile  of  dust  is  all  remains  of  thee, 
'T  is  all  thou  art  and  all  the  (p-eat  shall  be. 
The  boy  translated  the  book  to  my  lodgings,  and  mnveycd  a  clutir  to  the 
tabic ;  and  I  gat  down  with  the  intention  of  bringing  the  first  chapter, 
which  holds  a  very  interesting  story  from  the  French  into  the  English 
language,  in  a  style  suitable  io  fetch  the  author's  meaning  clearly  to  every 
inteaeet 


46  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSI/ION. 

We  get  up  from  our  thinkings  with  ticarts  softened  and  conquered  and  we 
eome  back  into  life  as  into  a  shadowy  vista  where  we  have  "  disquieted 
ourselves  in  vain." 

Thus  he  went  on  until  the  sun  drew  near  t4)  his  mid-day  and  the  aug- 
mented heat,  preyed  upon  his  force.  He  then  cast  round' ahcwX  him,  for 
some  more  commodious  path. 

Charity,  like  the  sun,  rubs  up  q\gtj  object  on  which  it  shines. 

He  who  is  used  to  turn  aside  from  the  world,  and  hold  communication 
with  himself  in  retirement  will  sometimes  at  least  hear  the  veracities  which 
the  world  do  not  speak  of  to  him.  A  more  sound  teacher  will  elevate  his  voice 
and  rouse  up  within  the  heart  those  hidden  suggestions  which  the  world 
had  overpowered  and  put  down. 

Among  all  our  bad  passions  there  is  a  strong  and  intimate  jozw/n^. 
Wlien  any  one  of  them  is  taloen  as  a  child  into  our  family  it  seldom  for- 
sakes us  until  it  has  fathered  upon  vs  all  its  relations. 

The  Creator  endowed  man  witi  a  lofty  countenance  and  directed  him 
to  look  up  to  heaven. 

In  the  following  extracts  the  student  may  alter  the  wordt 
in  Italic,  so  as  to  complete  the  rhymes  ;  as  in  the  followi  ng 

Example. 

Did  sweeter  sounds  adorn  my  flowing  tongue, 
Than  ever  man  pronounced  or  angel  chanted ; 
Had  I  all  knowledge,  human  and  godlike, 
That  thought  can  reach,  or  science  can  define ;  &c 

Rhyme  completed. 

Did  sweeter  sounds  adorn  my  flowing  tongue, 
Than  ever  man  pronounced  or  angel  sung  ; 
Had  I  all  knowledge,  human  and  divine. 
That  thought  can  reach  or  science  can  define,  &a 

Exercises, 

A  shepherd's  dog,  unskilled  in  sports, 
Picked  up  acquaintance  of  all  /r/Hcfe, 
Among  the  rest,  a  fox  he  knew; 
By  frequent  chat  their  friendship  increased. 

Says  Ren'ard,  "  'T  is  a  cruel  case. 
That  man  should  stigmatize  our  generation. 
No  doubt,  among  us,  rogues  you  find, 
As  among  dogs  and  human  sm-t. 
And  yet,  (unknown  to  me  and  you,) 
There  may  be  honest  men  and  not  false. 

Thus  slander  tries,  whatc'er  it  can, 
To  put  ua  on  the  foot  with  the  human  roi'i^ 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  47 

Not  in  the  solitude, 
Alone,  may  man  commune  with  Heaven,  or  behold^ 
Only  in  savage ^oresf 
And  sunny  vale  the  present  Deity ; 
Or  only  hear  his  voice 
Where  the  winds  whisper  and  the  waves  are  glad. 

Even  here  do  I  behold 
Thy  steps,  Almighty !  here,  amidst  the  crowd 

Through  the  great  city  rolled, 
With  everlasting  murmur,  deep  and  strong — 
Choking  the  ways  that  wind 
'Mongst  the  proud  piles,  the  work  of  human  kind. 

"  Without  a  vain,  without  a  grudging  heart. 
To  him  who  gives  us  all,  I  yield  a  portion ; 
From  him  you  came,  from  him  accept  it  here — 
A  frank  and  sober,  more  than  costly,  mtei-tainmmt?^ 
He  spoke,  and  bade  the  welcome  tables  spread ; 
Then  talked  of  virtue  till  the  time  of  rest, 
Wlaen  the  grave  household  round  his  hall  repair. 
Warned  by  the  bell,  and  close  the  hour  with  supplicalum, 

At  length  the  world,  renewed  by  calm  sleep, 
Was  strong  for  toil ;  the  dappled  morn  arose 
Before  the  pilgrims  part,  the  younger  crept 
Near  the  closed  cradle,  where  an  infant  slumbered, 
And  writhed  his  neck ;  the  landlord's  little  pride — 
O  strange  return ! — grew  black,  and  gasped,  and  exjyirea. 
Hon-or  of  horrors !  what !  his  only  son ! 
How  looked  our  hermit  when  the  deed  was  cornpleted! 
Not  hell,  though  hell's  black  jaws  in  sunder  part, 
And  breathe  blue  fire,  could  more  assault  his  breast. 

Confused,  and  struck  with  silence  at  the  deed, 
He  flies ;  but,  trembling,  fails  to  fly  with  haste. 

If  all  our  hopes  and  all  our  apprehensions, 

Were  prisoned  in  life's  narrow  limit  ; 
If,  travellers  through  this  vale  of  tears, 

We  saw  no  better  world  beyond ; 
Oh,  what  could  check  the  rising  sigh  ? 
What  earthly  thing  could  pleasure  bestow  ? 
Oh,  who  could  venture  then  to  expire  ? 

Oh,  who  could  then  endure  to  live  1 

A  few  examples  are  presented  below,  in  which  the  words  in 
Italic  are  improperly  used  for  others  which  in  some  respect* 
they  resemble. 

Example  1st. 

"  The  lamb  is  tame  in  its  dispDsition." 

Here  the  word  tame  is  incorrectly  used  for  gentle ;  tame- 
ness  is  produced  by  discipline;  gentleness  belongs  to  the 
natural  disposition. 


48  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


Example  2d, 

'*  Newton  discovered  the  telescope,  aud  Harvey  invented 
the  circulation  of  the  blood." 

In  this  example  the  words  discovered  and  invented  should 
change  places.  We  discover  what  was  hidden;  we  invent 
what  is  new. 

Example  Sd. 

"  Caius  Marcus  displayed  courage  when  he  stood  unmoved 
with  his  hand  in  the  fire ;  Leonidas  displayed  his  fortitude 
at  Thermopylae  when  with  three  hundred  Spartans  he  op- 
posed the  entire  army  of  Xerxes." 

Here  also  courage  and  fortitude  should  change  places. 
Courage  enables  us  to  meet  danger;  fortitude  gives  us 
/Strength  to  endure  pain 

From  such  examples  the  student  will  learn  the  importance 
of  proper  attention  to  the  exact  meaning  of  words.  A  loose 
style  of  writing  is  the  result  of  the  careless  use  of  words, 
improperly  considered  as  synonymous. 

Exercises. 

I  heard  a  large  noise,  which,  though  made  at  a  big  distance,  must  hav 
been  made  by  a  very  great  animaL 

The  work  is  capable  of  great  improvement,  although  it  was  written  by 
a  very  susceptible  man. 

Much  men  were  present,  and  their  united  voices  caused  numy  confusion. 

'FTa.nklin  framed  the  fact  that  lightning  is  caused  by  electricity.  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  discovered  the  telescope.  Solon  invented  a  new  set  of  laws 
for  the  city  of  Athens 

A  wicked  mmi  fabricates  sorrow  for  his  sins,  and  of t&n  feigns  an  excuse 
for  his  crimes. 

The  book  has  many  vices,  but  the  defect  is  not  in  the  author,  who  has 
sufficiently  shown  his  abhorrence  of  fauffs. 

I  know  the  man  and  am  acquainted  with  his  faults.  We  are  agreeably 
amazed  to  see  our  friends  returning  so  soon.  We  are  surprised  that  thej 
accomplished  their  business  so  early,  as  well  as  astonished  at  the  unexpect- 
ed events  which  nearly  threatened  their  ruin. 

Wc  often  know  the  s/wt  where  a  tting  is,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  find  ou'i 
the  exact  place  where  it  happened. 

When  dissetisions  arise  among  neighbors,  their  pa.ssions  often  interfere 
to  hinder  accommodations ;  when  members  of  a  faniilv  consult  interest 
or  humor,  rather  than  aflFertion,  there  will  necwsarily  be  twroncw ;  and 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  49 

when  many  member  of  a  community  have  an  equal  liberty  to  express 
their  opinions,  there  will  necessarily  be  disagreements. 

A  misplaced  economy  in  people  of  property  is  hw^  but  swearing  and 
drunkenness  are  meaner  vices. 

We  perform  many  duties  only  as  the  occasion  offers,  or  as  the  opportu 
nity  requires. 

It  is  the  duty  of  a  person  to  govern  those  who  are  under  him  in  all  mat 
ters  wherein  they  are  incompetent  to  rule  themselves. 

Fashion  and  caprice  regulate  the  majority  as  the  time  of  one  clock  rvks 
that  of  many  others. 

Exuberance  of  imagination  and  luxuriance  of  intellect  are  the  greatest 
gifts  of  which  a  poet  can  boast. 

We  may  be  eminent  and  illustrious  for  things  good,  bad,  or  indifferent , 
we  may  be  distinguished  for  our  singularities ;  we  may  be  conspicuous  for 
that  which  is  the  subject  of  vulgar  discourse ;  but  we  can  be  distinguished 
only  for  that  which  is  really  good  and  praiseworthy. 

Lovers  of  fame  are  sometimes  able  to  render  themselves  eminent  for 
their  vices  or  absurdities,  but  nothing  is  more  gratifying  to  a  man  than  to 
render  himself  illustrious  for  his  professional  skill.  It  is  the  lot  of  few  to 
be  noted,  and  these  few  are  seldom  to  be  envied. 

Water  and  snow  amass  by  the  continual  accession  of  fresh  quantities , 
the  ice  accumulates  in  the  river  until  it  is  frozen  over. 

The  industrious  man  amasses  guineas  and  accumulates  wealth. 

France  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  health ;  and  many  individuals 
resort  thither  for  the  benefit  of  their  salubrity. 

The  places  destined  for  the  education  of  youth  should  be  salutary;  the 
diet  of  the  young  healthy  rather  than  delicate,  and  in  all  their  disorders, 
care  should  be  taken  to  administer  the  most  wholesome  remedies. 

A  nation  may  be  extravagant  of  its  resources,  and  a  government  may  be 
vrofuse  of  the  public  money;  but  no  individual  should  be  lavish  of  what  is 
^ot  his  own,  nor  prodigal  of  what  he  gives  another. 

There  are  but  few  remarkable  things ;  but  many  things  are  extraordtnary. 

A  man  may  have  a  distaste  for  his  ordinary  occupations  without  any 
apparent  cause  ;  and  after  long  illness  he  will  frequently  take  a  dislike  to 
the  food  or  the  amusement  which  before  afforded  him  pleasure. 

It  is  good  to  suppress  unfounded  disgusts ;  it  is  difficult  to  overcome  a 
strong  dislike ;  and  it  is  advisable  to  divert  our  attention  from  objects 
calculated  to  create  distaste.* 


*  Words  are  sometimes  similar  in  sound,  although  different  in  spelling 
and  signification.  Such  are  the  words  sight,  cite,  and  site;  raise  and  raze 
aisle  and  isle  ;  scent,  cent,  and  sent,  &c.  Although  these  are  not,  technically 
speaking,  to  be  considered  as  synonymous,  they  may  be  here  mentioned  in 
order  to  caution  the  student  with  regard  to  the  use  of  them.  The  verbs  lie 
and  lay,  also,  although  entirely  different  in  meaning,  have  some  parts  in 
common,  which  are  frequently  misused.  The  teacher  who  wishes  fx3r  exer 
cises  of  this  kind,  to  be  corrected  by  the  pupil,  will  find  a  large  collection 
of  them  in  a  little  work  recently  published  by  a  distinguished  teacher  of 
this  city,  entitled  "  The  Companion  to  Spelling  Books,  in  which  the  Or 
thoOTaphy  and  Meaning  of  many  thOusa.iid  Words,  most  liable  to  be  mis- 
Bpelled  and  misused,  are  impressed  upon  the  Memory  by  a  regular  Series 
of  Written  Exercises."  The  work  is  by  that  eminent  teacher,  Mr.  William 
B.  Fowle.    See  also  the  exercises  on  words,  page  17 


50  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

XVIL 

METHODS  OF  INVERSION  AND  TRANSPOSITION. 

The  same  idea  may  be  expressed  in  a  great  variety  oi 
ways  by  the  methods  of  inversion  and  transposition  suggested 
in  the  following  examples. 

Mxample  Ist. 

By  changing  active  verbs  into  passive,  and  the  contrary , 
thus,  By  the  active  verb.  A  multitude  of  delighted  guests 
soon  filled  the  places  of  those  who  refused  to  come.  By  the 
passive  verb.  The  places  of  those  who  refused  to  come  were 
toon  filled  by  a  multitude  of  delighted  guests. 

Example  2d. 

By  using  the  case  absolute,  instead  of  the  nominative  case 
and  its  verb,  and  the  contrary;  as.  The  class  having  re- 
cited their  lessons,  the  teacher  dismissed  them.  The  class 
recited  their  lessons  and  the  teacher  dismissed  them.  Of  these 
two  sentences  the  former  is  preferable,  because  it  preserves 
the  unity  of  the  sentence,  which  requires  that  the  subject  or 
nominative  should  be  changed  as  little  as  possible  during  the 
course  of  the  sentence.  Another  recommendation  of  the  for- 
mer expression  is,  that  it  throws  out  the  conjunction,  which 
Hhould  never  be  unnecessarily  introduced  into  a  sentence. 

Example  3d. 

Infinitive  mood  or  substantive  and  participial  phrases  in- 
stead  of  nominative  or  objective  nouns,  and  the  reverse ;  as, 
His  having  been  unfortunate  is  no  disgrace ;  instead  of.  His 
misfortunes  are  no  disgrace. 

Diligence,  industry,  and  proper  improvement  of  time  are 
material  duties  of  the  young  ;  or.  To  be  diligent,  industrious, 
and  properly  to  improve  time  are  material  duties  of  the  young. 

Example  Ath. 

By  the  negation  or  ajfirmation  of  the  contrary  ;  as,  Solon 
the  Athenian  effected  a  great  change  in  the  gove-  nment  of  hia 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  51 

country.     Solon,  the  Athenian,  effected  no  smaU  change  in  the 
government  of  his  country. 

The  beauty  of  the  earth  is  as  conspicuous  as  the  grandeui 
of  the  heavens.  The  beauty  of  the  earth  is  not  less  ccmspicu- 
ous  than  the  grandeur  of  the  heavens. 

Example  6th. 

By  reversing  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  sentence,  with  a 
negative  adverb ;  as,  The  grandeur  of  the  heavens  is  not  more 
conspicuous  than  the  beauty  of  the  earth. 

The  negation  of  the  contrary.  *  The  beauty  of  the  earth  ia 
not  less  conspicuous  than  the  grandeur  of  the  heavens. 

By  a  comparison.  There  is  as  much  beauty  in  the  earth, 
as  there  is  grandeur  in  the  heavens. 

By  an  expletive  cause.  There  is  no  less  beaut/  in  the 
earth  than  grandeur  in  the  heavens. 

Example  Qth. 

By  changing  the  participial  phrases  into  a  personal  verb 
with  a  conjunction  ;  as,  Charles,  having  been  deprived  of  the 
help  of  tutors,  neglected  his  studies.  Charles  was  deprived 
of  the  help  of  tutors,  and  therefore  he  neglected  his  studies. 

Example  1th. 

Change  of  the  nominative  and  verb  into  an  infinitive 
phrase  ;  as.  He  sacrificed  his  future  ease  and  reputation  that 
he  might  enjoy  present  pleasure.  He  sacrificed  his  futuro 
eaisp  and  reputation  to  enjoy  present  pleasure. 

Example  Sth. 

The  infinitive  changed  into  an  objective  noun;  as.  Canst 
thou  expect  to  escape  the  hand  of  vengeance  ?  Canst  thou 
expect  an  escape  from  the  hand  of  vengeance  ? 

Or  into  a  finite  verb  with  its  nominative  ;  as,  Canst  thou 
expect  that  thou  shalt  escape  the  hand  of  vengeance  ? 


*  The  negative  adjective  is  generally  more  elegant  than  the  negative 
adverb.  Thus,  "I  was  unable^''  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  expression, 
^'Iwas  not  able:'  ^^Jnvisibie,''  rather  than  -^not  visible;  "  ^^Inconnsteiit^** 
rather  than  "  not  consistent :'  &c. 


52  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


Example  9th. 

Participial  nouns  converted  into  common  noiins,  and  the 
contrary  ;  as,  Providence  alone  can  order  the  changing  of 
times  and  seasons.  Providence  alone  can  order  the  changes 
of  times  and  seasons. 

Exam]f>le  10th. 

The  change  of  the  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  into  a 
noun  and  the  contrary  ;  and  the  convetsion  of  a  noun  into  a 
pronoun  ;  as,  Idleness,  ease,  and  prosperity  tend  to  generate 
folly  and  vice.  The  tendency  of  idleness,  ease,  and  pros- 
perity is  to  generate  folly  and  vice.  Idleness,  ease,  and 
prosperity  have  a  tendency  toward  the  generation  of  folly 
Folly  and  vice  are  too  generally  the  consequences  of  idle- 
ness, ease,  and  prosperity. 

Simple  language  always  pleases  most.  Simplicity  of  lan- 
pjuage  always  pleases  most.  We  please  most  when  we  speak 
simply. 

Those  persons  who,  &c.     They  who,  &c. 

Example  Wth. 

The  conversion  of  an  active  or  a  passive  verb  into  a  neuter 
verb  with  an  adjective  ;  as.  Sobriety  of  mind  suits  the  present 
«tate  of  man.  Sobriety  of  mind  is  suitable  to  the  present  state 
of  man. 

Example  \2th. 

By  the  conversion  of  a  declaration  into  an  obligation^  with 
a  corresponding  change  of  words. 

Declaration.  Man's  present  state  renders  sobriety  of  mind 
highly  becoming. 

Obligation.  Man  in  his  present  state  should  be  charac- 
terized by  sobriety  of  mind. 

Example  IZth, 

By  a  noun  in  apposition  to  avoid  the  use  of  the  conjunction 
«nrf.  Hope  is  the  sustainer  of  the  mind,  and  supports  us 
under  many  a  burden.  Hope,  the  sustainer  of  the  mind, 
Bupportfl  us  under  many  a  burden. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  d3 


Example  lAth, 

By  the  preposition  and  its  objective  case,  instead  of  the  pos- 
sessive ;  as,  The  moon's  mild  rauiance  and  the  sun's  resplen 
dent  brightness  are  objects  which,  &c.  The  mild  radiance  of 
the  moon  and  the  resplendent  brightness  of  the  sun,  *  &c» 

The  repetition  of  and  t  avoided  hy  the  use  of  the  preposi- 
tion ;  as,  God  has  given  us  ser^sas  to  enjoy  all  these  beautiful 
objects,  and  reason  to  guide  us  in  the  use  of  them.  God  has 
given  us  senses  to  enjoy  all  these  beautiful  objects,  with  rea- 
son to  guide  us  in  the  use  of  them. 

By  the  use  of  the  potential  mode  instead  of  the  infinitive ; 
God  has  given  us  senses  that  we  may  enjoy  all  these  beauti- 
ful objects,  with  reason,  &c. 

An  infinitive  phrase  instead  of  a  nominative  noun  ;  To  do 
justly,  to  love  mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly,  are  duties  enjoined 
by  Christianity.  Justice,  mercy,  and  humility,  are  duties 
enjoined  by  Christianity. 

The  negative  adverb  with  the  conjunction  but ;  We  can  ob 
serve  the  exquisite  skill  of  the  Artificer  in  all  that  we  see 
around  us.  We  can^o^  Imt  observe  the  exquisite  skill  of  the 
Artificer  in  all  that  we  see  around  us. 

It  is  to  be  remarked,  that  although  some  examples  have 
been  given,  in  which  the  participial  noun  is  used,  yet  when 
there  is  a  common  noun  from  the  same  root,  of  similar  mean- 
ing, the  participial  noun  should  be  avoided.  Thus,  "  The 
habit  of  deceiving  "  is  not  so  elegant  an  expression  as  "  Habits 
of  deception." 

Example  15th. 

Resolution  of  the  personal  pronoun,  with  the  conjunction 
arid  into  the  relative  pronoun  ;  thus,  We  can  learn  a  lesson  of 
resignation,  and  it  will  prepare  us  for  that  happy  home  where 
the  weary  are  at  rest.    We  can  learn  a  lesson  of  resignation, 


*  It  is  deemed  very  inelegant  to  constinict  a  sentence  with  many  posses 
sivc  nouns,  or  with  many  objectives  governed  by  the  preposition  ff.  Thus, 
the  sentence,  The  extent  o/the  prerogative  o/the  King  o/ England,  or.  The 
King  of  England's  prerogative's  extent,  would  be  better  exprciised  thus, 
The  extent  of  the  King  of  England's  prerogative. 

t  The  use  of  the  conjunction  and  may  often  be  avoided  by  dividing  long 
•entences  into  short  ones. 


t>4  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

which  will  prepare  us  for  that  happy  home  where  the  weary 
are  at  rest. 

Example  16^. 

By  the  use  of  the  present  or  perfect  participle  instead  of 
the  verb ;  as,  He  was  called  to  the  exercise  of  the  supreme 
power  at  a  very  eai'ly  age,  and  evinced  a  great  knowledge  of 
government  and  laws,  and  was  regai'ded  by  mankind  with  a 
respect  which  is  seldom  bestowed  on  one  so  young. 

In  this  sentence  the  use  of  the  participles  removes  one  of 
the  conjunctions,  which  young  writers  are  very  apt  to  repeat 
unnecessarily;  thus.  Called  to  the  exercise  of  the  supreme 
power  at  a  very  early  age,  and  evincing  a  great  knowledge 
of  government  and  laws,  he  was  regarded  by  mankind  with  a 
respect  which  is  seldom  bestowed  on  one  so  young. 

By  the  use  of  the  participles  instead  of  the  relative  clause, 
as,  "  The  smiles  that  encourage  severity  of  judgement  hide 
malice  and  insincerity."  Smiles  encouraging  severity  of 
judgement  hide  malice  and  insincerity. 

For  the  sake  of  emphasis,  or  to  gratify  a  taste  for  singu- 
larity, some  writers  have  adopted  the  poetical  style  in  prose, 
placing  the  verb  before  its  nominative  ;  thus,  Wlien  we  go,  for 
go  we  must,  &c.  Proceed  we  now  to  the  second  subject  of  our 
consideration.  Recognize  we  here  the  hand  of  an  Almighty 
power. 

In  some  instances,  perhaps  not  strictly  proper,  we  find  the 
definite  article  placed  before  the  relative  pronoun ;  as,  Tl  '9 
things,  the  which  you  have  seen  and  understood,  &c. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  in  all  the  changes  suggested  i  ih& 
foregoing  models,  there  must  be  some  slight  change  in  the 
idea,  but  still  the  identity  of  the  thought  is  sufficiently  pre- 
served in  all  the  changes  suggested.  * 


*  Under  the  hend  cf  variety  of  ea^essto7i,  may  be  noticed  some  few 
peculiarities  and  improprieties,  which  are  sometimes  heard,  especially  in 
colloquial  intercourse,  and  which,  in  some  instances,  are  not  noticed  by  any 
crammatical  authority.  And  first,  the  improper  use  of  if  for  tvhetlier,  jxa 
follows :  "  She  asked  me  if  I  would  go  with  her."  It  should  be,  "  She 
asked  me  whether  I  would  po,"  &c.  Again,  the  improper  use  oi  mo  for  my 
telf  luid  of  yon  for  yourself.  As,  I  am  going  to  wash  me.  Do  you  intend 
to  wash  you  ?  It  should  be  myself  and  yourself.  Again,  The  use  of  as  fof 
tluit ;  as.  1  do  not  know  as  I  shall"  go.  I  do  not  know  as  I  could  tell  when. 
It  should  bo  tfiot.  I  do  not  know  tha4:  I  shall  go.  I  do  not  know  that  1 
eould  tell  when.   Again,  The  use  of  any  and  got  with  a  negative ;  as,  I  hav« 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  5h 

Examples  of  some  of  the  preceding  methods  of  Inversion 
and  transposition. 

Example  1st. 

The  mind  is  sustained  by  hope. 
Hope  sustains  the  mind. 
Hope  is  the  sustainer  of  the  mind. 
The  sustainer  of  the  mind  is  hope. 

Example  2d, 

Idleness,  ease,  and  prosperity,  tend  to  generate  folly  and 
vice. 

The  tendency  of  idleness,  ease,  and  prosperity  is  to  gener- 
ate folly  and  vice. 

Idleness,  ease,  and  prosperity  have  a  tendency,  &c. 


not  got  any  book.  It  would  be  better  to  say,  I  have  no  book.  Such  words 
9&  fetch  for  bring,  sweat  ior  perspiration,  and  many  others  of  a  similar  char- 
acter, are  considered,  to  say  the  least,  inelegant,  and  are  to  be  avoided. 
The  word  so  is  sometimes  heard  in  use  for  therefore ;  as,  Charles  did  not 
wish  to  go,  so  I  did  not  urge  him.  It  should  be,  Charles  did  not  wish  to 
go,  therefore  I  did  not  urge  him.  Other  is  sometimes  improperly 
followed  by  InU  instead  of  than  ;  as,  I  saw  no  other  but  him.  It  should  be, 
I  saw  no  other  than  him.  We  sometimes  hear  the  demonstrative  pronoun 
improperly  used  for  the  personal  pronoun ;  as.  Those  who  hoar  must  obey. 
It  should  be.  They  who  near  must  obey.  We  sometimes  heai  such  expres- 
sions as  this:  I  know  of  hardly  \or  scarcely]  a  passage,  &c.  It  would  be 
better  to  say,  I  know  of  no  passage,  &c.  The  past  tenses  of  the  word  lay 
(to  place)  are  very  frequently  and  improperlv  used  for  the  corresponding 
tenses  of  lie  (to  lie  down).  Thus,  The  water  laid  in  the  pool.  It  sh.  uld  be, 
lay  in  the  pool.  You  have  laid  abed  too  long.  It  should  be,  You  have  lain^ 
&c.    Again,  We  frequently  find  a  wanl^  of  correspondence  in  the  different 

f»arts  of  a  sentence,  as  follows :  He  did  not  mention  Leonora,  nor  that  her 
ather  was  dead.  It  is  better  to  say,  He  did  not  mention  Leonora,  nor  the 
death  of  her  father.    These  expressions  fall  under  grammatical  rule. 

In  sentences  where  the  negative  adverb  occurs,  it  should  be  followed  bv 
the  negative  conjunction.  Thus,  "  Thou  canst  not  tell  whenv'.e  it  cometh 
and  whither  it  goeth,"  should  be,  Thou  canst  not  tell  whence  it  cometh  nor 
whither  it  goeth. 

In  the  use  of  prepositions  we  find  many  manifest  improprieties.  As  no 
certain  rule  can  be  laid  down  with  regard  to  them^  a  few  examples  are  pre 
sented,  to  show  wha*';  prepositions  may  be  properly  used  with  certain  words 
It  may,  however,  be  emarked  that  the  same  preposition  that  follows  a  verb 
or  adverb,  should  generally  follow  the  noun,  &c.,  which  is  derived  from 
it,  as,  confide  tw,  c-.afidence  in;  disposed  to  tyrannize,  a  disposition  to 
tyranny,  &c. 

Accuse  0/ falsehood.        Differ /?<??7t.  Needq/I 

Accused  }/y  his  frien  '■        Difficulty  in.  Observance  of. 

AcquH  o/:  l>»w>aution  o/.  Prejudice  ag-rtt»M<. 


56 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    C0MP081T10N. 


F  3lly  and  vice  are  too  frequently  the  consequences  of  iiUft 
nesS;  ease,  and  prosperity.  * 

Exercises  on  the  principles  of  the  preceding  methods  of  Inver 
sion  and  Transposition. 

Providence  alone  can  order  the  changing  of  the  seasons. 

Can  you  expect  to  be  exempted  from  these  troubles  which  all  must 
iufFer  1 

Earth  shall  claim  thy  growth,  to  be  resolved  to  earth  again. 

That  I  may  convince  you  of  my  sincerity,  I  will  repeat  the  assertion. 

Robriety  of  mind  is  not  unsuitable  to  the  present  state  of  man. 

lie  had  no  little  difficulty  in  accomplishing  the  undertaking. 
-  A  large  part  of  the  company  were  pleased  with  his  remarks. 

Hope  sustains  the  mind. 

Indeed,  if  we  could  arrest  time,  and  strike  off  the  wheels  of  his  chariot, 
and,  like  Joshua,  bid  the  sun  stand  still,  and  make  opportunity  tarry  as 
long  as  we  had  occasion  for  it,  this  were  something  to  excuse  our  delay 
or  at  least  to  mitigate  and  abate  the  folly  and  unreasonableness  of  it 

*  The  word  it  commonly  called  the  neuter  pronoun,  is  sometimes  very 
serviceable  in  enabling  us  to  alter  the  arrangement.  Thus,  It  is  hope  that 
sustains  the  mind.  It  is  by  hope  that  the  mind  is  sustained,  &c.  Se0 
W/iatelfs  Rhetoric,  Part^M,  Chap.  2d,  Fart  llth. 


Adapted  to. 
Agreeable  to. 
Averse  to. 
Bestow  upon. 
Boast  or  brag  of. 
Call  on. 
Change /or. 
Confide  in. 
Conformable  to. 
Compliance  ivith. 
Consonant  tu. 
Conversant  ivith*  a 
person,  in  a  thing. 
Dependent  upon. 
Derogation  from. 
Die  of  or  dy. 


Disappointed  in  or  of.  f 
Disapprove  of. 
Discouragement  to. 
Dissent  from. 
Eager  in. 
Engaged  in. 
Exception  from. 
Expert  at  or  in. 
Fall  ■under. 
Free  from. 
Glad  oyor  at.  % 
Independent  q/'or  on. 
Insist  upSn. 
Made  of. 
Marry  to. 
Martyr  ybr. 


Profit  hy. 

Provide  vnth,for,  or 

against. 
Reconcile  to. 
Replete  vnth. 
Resemblance  to. 
Resolve  on. 
Reduce  under  or  to.  \ 
Regard  to  or  for. 
Swerve  from. 
Taste  of  or  for.  || 
Think  of  or  on. 
True  to. 
Wait  o7i. 
Worthy  of.  *♦ 


♦Addison  has,  "conversant  among  the  writings,"  Ac,  and,  "conversant  a6mU 
worldly  iiflalrs. ''    Gfiicrallv  spoakiiiK,  "  conversant  urith  '    is  preterable. 

tWe  are  disappointed  o/ a  tldiiK'  when  we  do  not  net  it;  and  disappointed  in  it 
When  we  have  it,  and  Ilnd  that  it  does  not  answer  our  expectations. 

t  "  Glad  qf,"  wlien  the  cause  of  jov  is  something  gained  or  possessed;  and  "  clad 
«^"  when  somethinK  befalls  another;  as,  "Jonah  was  glad  0/ the  gourd;"  "He 
that  is  glad  at  calamities,"  &c 


S"  Reduce  under, "  is  to  conquer  or  subdue. 
A  tast  ■       ■ 


__  taste  q,f  a  thinR,  implies  actual  enjoyment  of  it;  but  a  taste /or  It,  Implies  only 
a  capacity  for  enioyment ;  as,  "  When  we  have  had  a  taste  qf  the  pleasures  of  virtue, 
we  can  have  no  taste /or  those  of  vice." 

*♦  Many  of  these  words  sometimes  take  other  prepositions  after  them,  to  expres* 
various  meanings;  thus,  for  example,  "Fall  t»,  to  comply;"  "Fall  off,  to  for- 
sake ;  "  "  Fall  out,  to  happen :  "  "  Fall  upon,  to  atUck ;  '^  ^'  Fall  to.''  to  begUi  oa 
Iterly,"  SiC. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  67 

The  records  of  Scripture  exhibit  no  character  more  remarkable  and 
instructive  than  that  of  the  Patriarch  Joseph.  He  is  one  vi^ho  is  beheld 
by  us,  tried  in  all  the  vicissitudes  of  fortune  5  from  the  c»)ndition  of  a 
slave  rising  to  be  ruler  of  the  land  of  Egypt ;  and  in  every  station,  favor 
is  acquired  by  him  with  God  and  man,  by  his  wisdom  and  virtue.  When 
he  was  overseer  of  Potiphar's  house  he  proved  his  fidelity  by  strong 
temptations,  which  were  honorably  resisted  by  him. 

When  the  artifices  of  a  false  woman  threw  liim  into  prison,  he  was  soon 
itjndered  conspicuous  even  in  that  dark  mansion  by  his  integrity  and 
prudence. 

Poetiy  is  sublime  when  any  great  and  good  affection,  as  piety  or  pat- 
riotism, is  awakened  in  the  mind  by  it. 

But  in  this  dark  and  bewildered  state  an  opposite  direction  is  taken  by 
the  aspiring  tendency  of  our  nature  and  a  very  misplaced  ambition  is  fed 
by  it. 

The  mind  is  sustained  by  hope. 

Idleness,  ease,  and  prosperity  tend  to  generate  folly  and  vice. 

The  beauty  displayed  in  the  earth  equals  the  grandeur  conspicuous  1ti 
the  heavens. 

Solon,  the  Athenian,  eflFected  a  great  change  in  the  government  of  his 
country. 

The  Spartans  considered  war  as  the  great  business  of  life.  For  that 
reason  they  trained  their  children  to  laborious  exercise,  and  instilled  into 
their  minds  the  principles  of  temperance  and  frugality. 

He  sacrificed  his  future  ease  and  reputation  that  he  might  enjoy  present 
pleasure. 

When  virtue  abandons  us,  and  conscience  reproaches  us,  we  become 
twrified  with  imaginary  evils. 

Expect  no  more  from  the  world  than  it  is  able  to  afford  you. 

Canst  thou  expect  to  escape  the  hand  of  vengeance  1 

Pro\ddence  alone  can  order  the  changing  of  times  and  seasons. 

She  who  studies  her  glass  neglects  her  own  heart. 

It  is  a  favorite  opinion  with  some,  that  certain  modes  of  instruction  are 
more  profitable  than  others,  or  at  least  that  there  are  some  branches  of 
study  which  give  more  full  and  constant  employment  to  the  intellectual 
facultie|. 

While  many  considerations  allure  the  young  and  enterprising  to  com 
mercial  pursuits,  the  amount  of  capital  which  is  needed,  tends  to  limit  the 
number  of  those  who  thus  employ  themselves. 

The  eye  could  scarcely  reach  the  lofty  and  noble  ceiling,  the  sides  be- 
ing regularly  formed  with  spars,  and  the  whole  place  presenting  the  idea 
of  a  magnificent  theatre,  that  was  illuminated  with  a  vast  profusion  of 
lights. 

An  endless  variety  of  characters,  dispositions,  and  passions,  diversifiea 
v\e  wide  circle  of  human  affairs. 

A  crowd  that  obstructed  his  passage  awakened  him  from  the  tranquillity 
01  meditation.  He  raised  his  eyes  and  saAV  the  chief  vizier,  who  had  re- 
turned from  the  divan  and  was  entering  his  palace 

Let  us  remember  thafof  small  incidents  the  system  of  human  life  is 
cK»3fly  composed. 

Her  temper  and  her  capacity  were  the  foundation  of  her  singular  talents 
for  government.  She  was  endowed  with  a  great  command  over  herself. 
and  she  soon  obtained  an  uncontrolled  ascendaiic;y  owr  the  peopk 


58  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Few  sovereigns  of  England  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  more  difficult 
circumstances,  and  by  none  was  the  government  uniformly  conducted 
80  successfully  and  felicitiously. 

The  enemy  was  subdued  and  the  garrison  was  silenced,  and  theTictori' 
ous  army  returned  triumphing. 

To  be  docile  and  attentive  is  required  of  the  young. 

Miss  Hannah  Moore's  writings  have  produced  no  small  influence  on 
the  morals  of  the  people. 

The  elegance  of  her  manners  is  as  conspicuous  as  the  beauty  of  her 
person. 

He  took  great  pains  that  he  might  obtain  the  reward. 

Gentle  manners  always  please  us  most. 

Strong  expressions  suit  only  strong  feelings. 

Providence  has  furnished  us  with  talents  for  performing  our  duties  and 
reason  to  guide  in  their  performance. 

We  can  see  the  wisdom  of  Grod  in  all  his  work^. 


xvin. 


FORMATION  OF  COMPOUND  SENTENCES  FROM  SIMPLE 
ONES. 

In  every  composition  there  should  be  a  due  intermixture 
of  long  and  short  sentences.  For  this  reason  the  student 
should  understand  how  to  form  compound  sentences  from  siip- 
ple  ones.  *  In  the  prosecution  of  this  work,  he  must  recollect 
that  in  every  sentence  there  must  be  some  connecting  principle 
among  the  parts.  Some  one  object  must  reign  and  be  predomi- 
nant. There  is  commonly  in  every  well-formed  sentenc*,  some 
person  or  thing  which  is  the  governing  word,  and  this  should 
be  continued  so,  if  possible,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of 
the  sentence. 

Another  principle,  which  he  must  also  bear  in  mind,  is  that 


*  Professor  Newman  says,  in  his  Rhetoric,  that  '*  Vivacity  of  Style  is 
gometimes  attained  by  the  omission  of  conjunctions  and  the  consequent 
division  of  the  discourse  into  short  sentences."  The  following  example 
ilhistnites  his  remark : 

"  As  tlie  storm  increased  with  the  nifjht,  the  sea  was  lashed  into  tremen 
dous  confusion,  and  there  wa«.  a  fearful  sullen  sound  of  rushing  waves  and 
broken  surges,  while  deep  called  unto  deep." 

"  The  storm  increased  with  the  night.  The  sea  was  lashed  into  tremen- 
dous confusion.  There  was  a  fearful  sullen  sound  of  ruahins:  waves  and 
broken  surges.     Deep  called  unto  deep." 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  59 

which  is  expressed  in  Dr.  Blair's  second  rule  for  the  preserva* 
tion  of  the  unitj  of  a  sentence,  namely  :  "  Never  to  crowd  into 
one  sentence,  things  which  have  so  httle  connection,  that  they 
could  bear  to  be  divided  into  two  or  more  sentences." 

Tb<3  violation  of  this  rule  tends  so  much  to  perplex  and 
Dbscnre,  that  it  is  safer  to  err  by  too  many  short  sentences, 
hva.  by  one  that  is  overloaded  and  embarrassed. 

Example, 

The  Sultan  was  dangerously  wounded. 
Thy  conveyed  him  to  his  tent. 

Upon  hearing  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops,  they  put  him  Into 
litter. 

The  litter  transported  him  to  a  place  of  safety. 
The  place  of  safety  was  at  the  distance  of  about  fifteen 
1  '*.gues. 

Compound  sentence  formed  from  the  preceding  simple  ones. 

The  Sultan  oeing  dangerously  wounded,  they  carried  him  to  his  tent; 
and  upon  hearing  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops,  they  put  him  into  a  litter, 
which  transported  him  to  a  place  of  safety,  at  the  distance  of  about  fifteen 
leagues. 

This  sentence  will  be  better  if  it  be  constructed  as  follows 
so  that  there  shall  be  but  one  governing  word  from  the  begin 
ning  to  the  end  of  the  sentence.     Thus  : 

The  Sultan  being  dangerously  wounded,  was  carried  to  his  tent ;  and 
on  hearing  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops,  was  put  into  a  litter,  and  trans- 
ported to  A  place  of  safety,  about  fifteen  leagues  distant. 

The  following  rules  for  the  arrangement  of  wen  as  should 
be  particularly  observed,  in  the  composition  of  compound 
sentences. 

Rule  1st.  The  words  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  mark  as  distinctly  as 
>05siblc  by  their  location,  the  relation  of  the  mveral  parts  to  each  other. 

This  rule  requires  that  the  verb  should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to 
Jbe  nominative ;  that  the  object  should  follow  the  verb  in  close  succession, 
.Jhat  adverbs  should  be  placed  near  the  word  whose  signification  they 
affect,  that  the  preposition  should  be  immediately  followed  by  the  word 
which  it  governs,  and  that  pronouns  should  be  placed  in  such  a  position 
is  to  leave  no  doubt  in  the  mind,  with  regard  to  their  antecedents. 

Rule  2d.  When  a  circmnstauee  is  thrown  into  the  midst  of  a  senteno* 


eU  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMl'OSITIOl^. 

It  should  not  be  placed  between  the  capital  clauses,  nor  so  as  to  h-.v  ;| 
loosely,  but  should  be  distinctly  determined  to  its  connexion  by  tlie  posi 
tion  which  it  occupies. 

The  following  sentence,  composed  of  several  simple  sentences,  is  badly 
arranged.  The  parts  in  Italic  show  what  the  '  curcumstance '  is  which  ia 
thrown  into  the  midst  of  the  sentence. 

'  The  minister  who  grows  less  by  his  elevation,  like  a  statue  placed  on  a 
mighty  pedestal,  will  always  have  his  jealousy  strong  about  him. 

In  this  sentence,  a  beautiful  simile,  by  its  improper  location,  is  not  only 
deprived  of  its  effect,  but  is  an  encumbrance.  Let  a  slight  alteration  of 
the  arrangement  be  made,  and  the  simile  is  restored  to  its  beauty,  and 
becomes  highly  ornamental.     Thus : 

The  minister,  who,  like  a  statue  placed  on  a  mighty  pedestal,  grows 
less  by  his  elevation,  will  always  have  his  jealousy  strong  about  him. 

Rule  3d.  Every  sentence  should  present  to  the  mind  a  distinct  picture, 
or  single  group  of  ideas.  For  this  reason,  the  scene  and  the  circumstances 
expressed  witliin  the  compass  of  a  sentence  must  not  be  unnecessarily 
changed. 

In  the  formation  of  compound  sentences,  therefore,  from  simple  ones, 
whatever  cannot  be  grouped  so  as  to  form  an  harmonious  picture,  should 
be  presented  in  a  separate  sentence.  The  following  sentence  shows  very 
clearly  the  bad  effects  of  a  change  from  person  to  person 

'  The  Brittons  left  to  shift  for  themselves,  and  daily  harassed  by  cruel 
inroads  from  the  Picts,  were  forced  to  call  in  the  Saxons  for  their  defence, 
who  consequently  reduced  the  great  part  of  the  island  to  their  power 
drove  the  Britons  into  the  most  remote  and  mountainous  parts,  and  the  rest 
of  the  country,  in  customs,  religion  and  language,  became  wholly  Saxon ' 

This  complicated  sentence,  by  means  of  some  slight  alterations,  and  a 
division  into  several  sentences,  will  appear  clear  and  accurate ;  thus, 

The  Britons,  left  to  shift  for  themselves,  and  daily  harassed  by  the  cruel 
inroads  of  the  Picts,  were  forced  to  call  in  the  Saxons  for  their  defence. 
But  these  (the  Saxons)  soon  reduced  the  greatest  part  of  the  island  under 
their  own  power,  and  drove  the  Britons  to  the  most  remote  and  mountain 
ous  parts.  The  consequence  was,  that  the  rest  of  the  country  became 
inhabited  by  a  people  in  language,  manners  and  religion  wholly  Saxon. 

Rule  4th.  The  too  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  pronouns  referring  to 
different  antecedents  should  be  avoided. 

The  reason  for  this  rule  is,  that  such  words  being  substitutes,  can  be 
used  with  advantage  only  when  that  to  which  the  pronoun  refers  is  quite 
obvious.     The  following  sentence  exemplifies  this  remark : 

'  One  may  have  an  air  which  proceeds  from  a  just  sufficiency  and  knowl- 
edge of  the  matter  before  him,  which  may  naturally  produce  some  motions 
of  his  head  and  bodv,  which  might  become  the  bench  better  than  the  bar.' 

In  this  sentence  tbe  pronoun  ^  which''  is  used  three  times;  and  each  time 
with  a  different  antecedent.  The  first  time  that  it  is  used  its  antecedent 
is  mV,  the  second  time  it  is  sufficiency  and  knowledge,  and  the  third,  motioru 
of  the  head  and  body.  The  confusion  thus  introduced  into  the  sentence 
may  be  avoided  by  employing  this  for  the  second  which,  and  such  as  for 
the  third :  thus, 

"  One  may  have  an  air  which  proceeds  from  a  just  sufficiency  of  knowl- 
edge of  the  matter  before  him,  and  this  may  naturally  produce  soraf 
motions  of  the  head,  such  as  might  become  the  bench  better  than  the  bar. 
R»d*  ith.  AU  redundant  words  and  claaseA  should  be  avowed. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    CCMPOSITION.  61 

The  reason  for  this  rule  is,  that  whatever  does  not  add  to  the  meaning 
of  a  sentence  must  be  useless  if  not  hurtful.* 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  remarked  in  the  words  of  Archbishop  Whately, 
It  is  a  useful  admonition  to  young  writers,  that  they  should  always  at 
tempt  to  recast  a  sentence  that  does  not  please ;  altering  the  arrangement 
and  entire  structure  of  it,  instead  of  merely  seeking  to  change  one  word 
for  another.  This  will  give  a  great  advantage  in  point  of  copiousness 
also  ;  for  there  may  be,  suppose  a  substantive  (or  noun)  which,  either  be- 
cause it  does  not  fully  express  our  meaning,  or  for  some  other  reason,  we 
wish  to  remove,  but  can  find  no  other  to  supply  its  place.  But  the  object 
may  perhaps  be  easily  accomplished  by  means  of  a  verb,  adverb,  or  other 
part  of  speech,  the  substitution  of  which  implies  an  alteration  in  the  con- 
struction. It  is  an  exercise,  accordingly,  which  may  be  commended  as 
highly  conducive  to  the  improvement  of  style,  to  practise  casting  a  sen' 
tence  into  a  variety  of  different  forms. 


XIX. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE,  f 

The  English  Language  consists  of  about  thirty-eight  thousand  words. 
This  includes,  of  course,  not  only  radical  words,  but  all  derivatives ;  ex- 
cept the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs :  to  which  must  be  added  some 
few  terms,  which,  though  set  down  in  the  dictionaries,  are  either  obsolete 
or  have  never  ceased  to  be  considered  foreign.  Of  these,  about  twenty- 
three  thousand,  or  nearly  five-eighths,  are  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin.  The 
majority  of  the  rest,  in  what  proportion  we  cannot  say,  are  Latin  and 
Greek ;  Latin,  however,  has  the  larger  share.  The  names  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  objects  of  sense,  in  other  words,  the  terms  which  occur  most 
frequently  in  discourse,  or  which  recall  the  most  vivid  conceptions,  are 
Anglo-Saxon.  Thus,  for  example,  the  names  of  the  most  striking  ob- 
jects in  visible  nature,  of  the  chief  agencies  at  work  there,  and  of  th« 
changes  which  we  pass  over  it,  are  Anglo-Saxon.  This  language  has 
given  names  to  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars ;  to  three 
out  of  the  four  elements,  earth,  fire,  and  water ;  three  out  of  the  four  sea- 
sons, spring,  summer,  and  winter ;  and,  indeed,  to  all  the  natural  divisions 
of  time,  except  one ;  as,  day,  night,  morning,  evening,  twilight,  noon, 
mid-day,  midnight,  sunrise,  sunset ;  some  of  which  are  amongst  the  most 
poetical  terms  we  have.  To  the  same  language  we  are  indebted  for  the 
names  of  light,  heat,  cold,  frost,  rain,  snow,  hail,  sleet,  thunder,  lightning, 
as  well  as  almost  all  those  objects  which  form  the  component  parts  of  the 
beautiful  in  external  scenery,  as  sea  and  land,  hill  and  dale,  wood  and 
stream,  &c.  It  is  from  this  language  we  derive  the  words  which  are  ex- 
pressive of  the  earliest  and  dearest  connexions,  and  the  strongest  and  most 
Powerful  feelings  of  nature ;  and  which  are,  consequently,  invested  witk 

*  See  page  71,  where  the  term  Redundancy  is  separately  considered, 
t  The  account  here  given  is  from  the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  -of  O/itobw 
tS90.     See,  also,  pages  34  to  40,  on  the  subject  of  DerivHtion. 
6 


62  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

our  Oldest  and  most  complicated  associations.  It  is  this  language  which 
has  given  us  names  for  father,  mother,  husband,  wife,  brother,  sister,  son, 
daughter,  child,  home,  kindred,  friends.  It  is  this  which  hiis  fiunished  ua 
with  the  greater  part  of  those  metonymies,  and  other  figurative  expres- 
sions, by  which  we  represent  to  the  imagination,  and  tliat  in  a  single 
"^ord,  the  reciprocal  duties  and  enjoyments  of  hospitality,  friendship,  or 
love.  Such  are  hearth,  roof,  fireside.  The  chief  emotions,  too,  of  which 
we  are  susceptible,  are  expressed  in  the  same  language,  as  love,  hope, 
fear,  sorrow,  shame;  and,  what  is  of  more  conseciuence  to  the  orator  and 
the  poet,  as  well  as  in  common  life,  the  outward  signs  by  which  emotion 
is  indicated  are  almost  all  Anglo-Saxon ;  such  are  tear,  smile,  blush,  tc 
laugh,  to  weep,  to  sigh,  to  groan.  Most  of  those  objects,  about  which  the 
practical  reason  of  man  is  employed  in  common  life,  receive  their  names 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon.  It  is  the  language,  for  the  most  part,  of  business ; 
of  the  counting-house,  the  shop,  the  market,  the  street,  the  farm ;  and, 
hoAvever  miserable  the  man  who  is  fond  of  philosophy  or  abstract  science 
might  be,  if  he  had  no  other  vocabulary  but  this,  we  must  recollect  that 
language  was  made  not  for  the  few,  but  the  many,  and  that  portion  of  it 
which  enables  the  bulk  of  a  nation  to  express  their  wants  and  transact 
their  affairs,  must  be  considered  of  at  least  as  much  importance  to  gen- 
eral happiness,  as  that  which  serves  the  purpose  of  philosophical  science. 
Nearly  all  our  national  proverbs,  in  which  it  is  truly  said,  so  much  of  the 
practical  wisdom  of  a  nation  resides,  and  which  constitute  the  manual 
and  vade  mecum  of  "  hobnailed  "  philosophy,  are  almost  wholly  Anglo- 
Saxon.  A  very  large  proportion  (and  that  always  the  strongest)  of  the 
language  of  invective,  humor,  satire,  colloquial  pleasantry,  is  Anglo 
Saxon.  Almost  all  the  terms  and  phrases  by  which  we  most  energeti 
cally  express  anger,  contempt,  and  indignation,  are  of  Anglo-Saxon 
origin.*  The  Latin  contributes  most  largely  to  the  language  of  polite 
life,  as  well  as  to  that  of  polite  literature.  Again,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
convey  ideas,  which,  though  not  truly  and  properly  offensive  in  them 
selves,  would,  if  clothed  in  the  rough  Saxon,  appear  so  to  the  sensitive 
modesty  of  a  highly  refined  state  of  society ;  di-essed  in  Latin,  these  very 
same  ideas  shall  seem  decent  enough.  There  is  a  large  number  of  words, 
which,  from  the  frequency  with  which  they  are  used,  and  from  their  being 
80  constantly  in  the  mouths  of  the  vulgar,  would  not  be  endured  in  pol- 
ished society,  though  more  privileged  synonymcs  of  Latin  origin,  or  some 
classical  circumlocution,  expressing  exactly  the  same  thing,  shall  pasi 
unquestioned. 

There  may  be  nothing  dishonest,  nothing  really  vulgar  about  the  old 
Saxon  word,  yet  it  would  be  thought  as  uncouth  in  a  drawing-room,  as 
the  ploughman  to  whose  rude  use  it  is  abandoned,  t    Thus,  the  word 


*  One  of  the  most  distinguished  orators  and  writers  of  the  present  ,^e  is 
remarkable  for  the  Saxon  force  and  purity  of  his  lanpnape.  He  »)ldom 
uses  an  Anglicized  Latin  word,  when  a  pure  English  expression  is  at  hand. 
This  will  account,  in  some  degree,  for  the  strength  of  his  language  and  the 
vehemence  of  his  style.  The  reader  scarcely  needs  to  be  informed,  that 
reference  is  here  made  to  the  late  Secretary  of  State,  Hon.  Daniel  Webster. 

t  To  what  is  here  said  of  the  Saxon,  may  be  added  a  short  extract  fn>n> 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  "  Ivanhoe,"  in  a  dialogue  between  the  jester  and  th 
iwineherd.     (Vol.  I.  p.  25.     S.  H.  Parker's  edition.) 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  63 

'^stench"  is  lavendered  over  into  unpleasant  effluvia,  or  an  ill  odor, 
*  SAveat,"  diluted  into  four  times,  the  number  of  syllables,  becomes  a  very 
inotfen'sive  thing  is  tlie  shape  of  "  perspiration."*  To  "  squint "  is  soften- 
ed into  obliquity  of  vision ;  to  be  "  dxunk "  is  vulgar ;  but,  if  a  man  be 
simply  intoxicated  or  inebriated,  it  is  comparatively  venial.  Indeed,  we 
may  say  of  the  classical  names  of  -vdces,  what  Burke  more  questionably 
iaid  of  vices  themselves,  "  that  they  lose  half  their  deformity  by  losing 
all  their  grossness."  In  the  same  manner,  we  all  know  that  it  is  very  pos- 
sible for  a  medical  man  to  put  to  us  questions  under  the  seemly  disguise 
of  scientific  phraseology  and  polite  circimilocution,  which,  if  expressed  in* 
the  bare  and  rude  vernacular,  would  almost  be  as  nauseous  as  his  draughts 
»ud  pills.  Lastly ;  there  are  many  thoughts  which  gain  immensely  by 
mere  novelty  and  variety  of  expression.  This  the  judicious  poet,  who 
knows  that  the  connexion  between  thoughts  and  words  is  as  intimate  as 
that  between  body  and  spirit,  well  understands.  There  are  thoughts  in 
themselves  trite  and  common-place,  when  expressed  in  the  hackneyed 
terms  of  common  life,  which,  if  adorned  by  some  graceful  or  felicitous 
novelty  of  expression,  shall  assume  an  unwonted  air  of  dignity  and  ele 
gance.  What  was  trivial,  becomes  striking;  and  what  was  plebeian, 
noble. 


♦  See  Euphemism. 


XX. 


PEREPHRASE,  PERrPHRASIS,  OR  CIRCUMXOCUTION,  EU- 
PHEMISM AJSTD  AJ&JTONOMASIA. 

Periphrase,  periphrasis,  and  circumlocution,  are  words  all 
meaning  the  same  thing,  and  are  equivalent  to  what  is  gener- 


"  How  call  you  these  grunting  brutes  running  about  on  their  fore  legs  ?  " 
iemanded  Wamba. 

"  Sudne,  fool,  stinne,^^  said  the  herd ;  "  every  fool  knows  that." 

"  And  swine  is  good  Saxon,"  said  the  jester.  •'  But  how  call  you  the 
sow,  when  she  is  flayed  and  drawn  up  by  the  heels  like  a  traitor  ?  " 

"  Pork,^^  answered  the  swineherd. 

"I  am  very  glad  every  fool  knows  that,  too,"  said  Wamba;  "  and  pork, 
I  think,  is  good  Norman  French ;  and  so  when  the  brute  lives,  and  is  in  the 
charge  of  a  Saxon  slave,  she  goes  by  her  Saxon  name ;  but  becomes  a  Nor- 
man and  is  called  pork,  when  she  is  carried  to  the  Castle-hall  to  feast 
among  the  nobles.  There  is  old  alderman  Ox,  continues  to  hold  his  Saxon 
epithet,  while  he  is  under  the  charge  of  serfs  and  bondmen  ;  but  becomes 
ieef,  when  he  arrives  before  the  worshipful  jaws  that  are  destined  to  con 
sume  him.  Calf,  too,  becomes  Veal,  in  the  like  manner;  he  is  Saxon 
whew  he  retjuires  tendance,  and  takes  a  Norman  name,  when  he  become* 
matter  of  enj  oy ment. ' '  ' 


64  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

all/ called  a  '•  roundahout  cicpremow;'  which  explamition  u 
it83lf  an  example  of  the  figure,  because  it  denotes  m  three 
wards  what  periphrase,  periphrasis,  or  circumlocution  does  in 
ono.  The  definitions  of  words,  as  they  appear  in  dictionaries, 
are  periphrases.  Such  circumlocutions  are  frequently  useful, 
especially  in  poetry ;  and  are  often  necessary  in  translations 
from  foreign  languages,  when  we  can  find  no  word  in  our  own, 
exactly  equivalent  to  that  which  we  have  to  translate. 

Periphrase*  is  frequently  useful  to  avoid  a  repetition  of  the  same  word 
Dut  periphrases  of  every  kind  require  careful  management ;  because,  per- 
haps, more  than  any  other  figure  of  speech,  they  are  apt  to  run  into 
bombast.f 

Under  the  head  of  periphrases  may  be  included  the  figures  Euphemism 
and  Antonomasia. 

Words,  or  phrases  that  call  up  disagreeable  ideas  are,  in  po 
lite  language,  softened  by  means  of  circumlocutions.  In  these 
changes,  as  well  as  in  most  others,  custom  is  the  guide.  It  is 
reckoned  more  decorous,  for  example,  to  the  memory  of  the 
departed,  to  say  that  "  he  perished  on  the  scaffold,"  than  that 
"  he  was  hanged."  Such  softened  expression  is  called  euphem- 
ism ;  a  Greek  word  signifying  a  kind  speech. 

Antonomasia  is  a  term  applied  to  that  form  of  exJ)ression  in 
which  a  proper  name  is  put  for  a  common,  or  a  common  name 
for  a  proper ;  or,  when  the  title,  office,  dignity,  profession,  sci- 
ence, or  trade,  is  used  instead  of  the  true  name  of  a  person. 
Thus,  when  we  apply  to  Christ  the  term,  "  the  Savior  of  the 
world,"  or  "  the  Redeemer  of  mankind  ; "  or  to  Washington, 
the  term,  "  the  Father  of  his  country ; "  or  when  we  say  His 
Excellency,  instead  of  the  governor,  His  Honor,  instead  of 
the  judge ;  or.  His  Majesty,  instead  of  the  king,  the  expres- 
sion is  called  Antonomasia.  So,  also,  when  a  glutton  is  call- 
ed a  Heliogabalus  (from  the  Roman  emperor  distinguished 
for  that  vice,)  or  a  tyrant  is  called  a  Nero,  we  have  other  in- 
stances of  the  same  form  of  expression. 


*  Periphrase,  as  defined  by  Webster,  is  "  The  use  of  more  words  than  ar« 
necessary  to  express  the  idea;  as  a  figure  of  rhetoric,  it  is  employed  t« 
avoid  a  common  or  trite  manner  of  expression." 

t  Bombast  is  a  kind  of  expression  by  which  a  serious  attempt  is  made  to 
raise  a  low  or  familiar  subject  above  its  rank,  thereby  never  failing  to  make 
It  ridiculous.  Bathos  is  the  reverse  of  bombast,  and'  consists  in  degrading 
a  snltject  by  too  low  expressions.  Both  of  these  modes  of  writing,  equally 
excite  the  risible  faculties  of  the  reader. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  65 

Again,  when  we  call  Geography,  "  that  science  which  de- 
scribes the  earth  and  its  inhabitants,"  or  Arithmetic  is  termed 
"the  science  of  numbers,"  the  antonomasia becomes  apparent 
It  will  thus  be  seen,  that  this  form  of  expression  is  frequently 
nothing  more  than  an  instance  of  periphrasis,  or  circumlocution. 

This  form  of  expression  is  very  common  in  parliamentary  language 
and  in  deliberative  assemblies,  in  which,  in  speaking  of  individual  persons, 
they  are  not  called  by  their  proper  names,  but  by  their  office,  or  some 
other  designating  appellation.*  Thus,  in  speaking  of  Washington,  the 
orator  designates  him,  by  antonomasia,  as  "  the  sage  of  Mount  Vernon," 
or  of  Shakspeare,  as  "  the  bard  of  Avon,"  from  the  river  on  whose  bank 
he  resided. 

Amplification  is  the  expansion  of  a  subject,  by  enumerating 
circumstances  which  are  intended  by  an  orator  to  excite  more 
strongly  in  his  audience  the  feeUngs  of  approbation  or  of 
blame.  It  is  dwelling  upon  the  subject  longer  than  is  actu- 
ally necessary  for  its  enunciation ;  and  is  in  so  far  a  species 
of  circumlocution.! 


*It  is  contrary  to  the  rules  of  all  parliamentary  assemblies,  to  call  a.ny 
member  by  his  proper  name.  Each  individual  is  called  by  the  name  of  the 
state,  town,  city,  county,  or  ward,  which  he  represents.    Thus,  we  say,  "  the 

gentleman  from  Massachusetts,"  "  the  member  irom  Virginia,"  "  the  raom- 
er  from  Ward  10,"  &c. ;  or,  from  his  position,  "the  gentleman  on  my 
right,"  or,  "  the  gentleman  who  last  spoke,"  &c. 

The  antonomasia  is  a  figure  frequently  used  by  the  most  distinguished 
historical  writers,  and  especially  by  Mr.  Gibbon,  the  historian  of  the  '*  De- 
cline and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

t  The  following  passage  is  quoted  by  Mr.  Booth  from  Scriblerus,  "  the 
perusal  of  the  whole  of  which  admirable  satire,"  says  Mr.  Booth,  "  is  indis- 
pensable to  every  one  who  would  study  the  principles  of  English  Compo- 
sition : "  — 

"  We  may  define  amplification  to  be  making  the  most  of  a  thought ;  it  is 
the  spinning-wheel  of  the  Bathos,  which  draws  out  and  spreads  it  in  its 
finest  thread.  There  are  amplifiers  who  can  extend  half  a  dozen  thin 
thoughts  over  a  whole  folio ;  but  for  which,  the  tale  of  many  a  vast  ro- 
mance, and  the  substance  of  many  a  fair  volume,  might  be  reduced  into 
the  size  of  a  primer. 

"  A  passage  in  the  104th  Psalm,  '  He  looks  on  the  earth  and  it  trembles, 
ha  touches  the  hills  and  they  smoke,'  is  thus  amplified  by  the  same  author  • 
*  The  hills  forget  they  're  fixed,  and  in  their  fright 
Cast  off  their  weight,  and  ease  themselves  for  flight ; 
The  woods  with  terror  winged  outfly  the  wind, 
And  leave  the  heavy  panting  hills  behind.'  " 
You  here  see  the  hills,  not  only  trembling,  but  shaking  off  the  woods  from 
their  backs,  to  run  the  taster ;  after  this,  you  are  presented  with  a  foot  race 
of  mountains  and  woods,  where  the  woods  distance  the  mountains,  that, 
."Hke  corpulent,  pursy  fellows,  come  puflBng  arid  panting  a  vast  way  bti^m^ 
fhem. 

a* 


66 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


Examples  of  Periphrasis, 

Grammar.  The  science  which  teaches  the  proper  psa 

of  language. 
Woman.  The  gentle  sex ;  or,  the  female  sex 

Arithmetic.  The  science  of  numbers. 

To  disappoint.      To  frustrate  one's  hopes. 
The  skies.  The  upper  deep. 

Zoology.  That  department  of  natural  science  which 

treats  of  the  habits  of  animals. 


Examples  of  Euphemism. 


Tanies  worked  so  hard  that  he 
sweat  very  profusely. 

The  room  smells  badly. 
Mary  is  a  great  slut. 


He  is  a  very  dirty  fellow. 
You  lie. 


James  worked  so  hard  that  he 
perspired  very  freely;  or 
the  perspiration  stood  on 
him  in  drops. 

There  is  an  unpleasant  efflu- 
via in  the  room. 

Mary  is  inattentive  to  her  per- 
sonal appearance;  or,  is 
careless  in  her  personal 
habits. 

He  is  destitute  of  neatness. 

You  labor  under  a  mistake.* 


Exa,mples  of  Antonomasia. 


The  Queen. 
Homer. 

Washington. 

Hesiod. 

Lord  Wellington. 


Her  Majesty. 

The  author  of  the  Iliad  ard 

Odyssey. 
The  Sage  of  Mount  VemoD. 
The  earliest  of  the  Poets. 
The  Hero  of  Waterloo. 


*  No  word  of  Holy  Writ  has  in  it  a  better  turn  of  worldlv  wisdom  than 
that  from  the  Book  of  Proverbs  :  —  "A  soft  answer  turnetli  away  wrath, 
but  pn'ievous  words  stir  up  anger."  The  "  soft  answer  "  is,  in  fact,  a  eu- 
phemism. No  one  is  oflended  who  Ls  told  that  "  he  labors  under  a  mistake," 
while,  perhaps,  no  accusation  would  give  greater  oflence,  tlian  Die  siun« 
Idea,  exprossea  as  above  luisoftened  by  euphemism. 


AlDb    rO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  67 

Boston.  The  Literary  Emporium. 

New  York.  The  Commercial  Emporium, 

Phila.:3lphia.  The  City  of  Brotherly  Love. 

New  Orleans.  The  Crescent  City. 

Cincinnati.  The  Queen  of  the  West. 

Baltimore.  The  Monumental  City. 

London.                        »  The  Mart  of  the  World ;  or, 

the  British  Metropolis. 

The  King  of  France.  His  most  Christian  Majesty. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte.  The  Hero  of  a  hundred  battles. 

The  King  of  Spain.  His  most  Catholic  Majesty. 

Washington,  (the  capital  of      The  City  of  magnificent  dis- 

the  United  States.)  tances. 

St.  Luke.  The  beloved  physician. 

St.  John.  The  disciple  that  Jesus  loved. 

Oowper.  The  author  of  "  The  Task." 

The  British  Coiirt.  The  Court  of  St.  James. 


The  following  sentences  present  examples  of  Periphrasis,  * 
Euphemism  and  Antonomasia,  and  it  is  required  of  the  student 
to  designate  each. 

Solomon,  (the  wisest  of  men,)  says,  "  Better  is  a  dinner  of  herbs,  where 
love  is,  than  a  stalled  ox  and  hatred  therewith." 

David  C  The  Author  of  the  Psalms)  was  one  of  the  sweetest  and  most 
pious  writers  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Moses  ( The  Jewish  Lawgiver)  was  educated  by  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh. 

Saul  (The  first  king  of  Israd)  was  a  man  of  uncommon  stature. 

Methuselah  (He  who  lived  to  the  greatest  age  recorded  of  man)  died  before 
his  father,  t 

Adam  Smith  (The  author  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations)  says  that  there  is 
in  man  a  natural  propensity  to  track,  barter  and  exchange  one  thing  for 
another. 

It  is  pleasant  to  relieve  (be  the  instrument  of  relieving)  distress. 

Short  and  (The  transient  day  of)  sinful  indulgence  is  followed  by  long 
and  distressing  (a  dark  and  tempestuous  night  of)  sorrow. 

Christ  (He  toho  spake  as  never  man  spoke)  says,  in  his  sennon  on  the 
mount,  "  Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart,  for  they  shall  see  God." 

*  The  judicious  use  of  periphrasis  or  circumlocution,  often  involves  an  ac- 

?uaintance  with  figurative  language,  under  which  head  it  properly  belongs, 
t  is  taken  from  that  connexion  in  order  to  be  applied  in  other  exercises 
which  precede  the  subject  of  figures. 
t  His  father  was  Enoch,  who  never  died,  but  was  translated. 


68  A1D3   TO    ENGLISH    COMP08ITIO». 

He  thought  the  man  a  scoundrel  (dishonest)  and  therefore  would  not 
pay  him  the  money  (would  place  no  confidence  in  Jam.) 

He  behaved  like  a  boor  (in  an  improper  manner)  and  therefore  the  gen- 
teel (persons  of  refinement)  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  him. 

I  consider  him  an  impudent  puppy  (rude  in  his  manners)  and  shall 
therefore  separate  myself  from  his  company. 

The  man  was  drunk  (intoxicated,  or  had  indulged  in  liquor)  when  he 
used  these  indecent  words  (that  improper  language)  and  altliough  I  was 
very  mad  (luas  displeased)  with  him,  I  did  not  scold  at  (reprove)  him. 

Major  Andre  was  hanged  (perished  on  the  scaffold)  although  he  ear- 
nestly requested  that  he  might  be  fired  at  (shot.) 

That  man  eats  his  victuals  like  a  pig  (is  unrefined  in  his  manners  at  the 
table)  and  guzzles  down  his  drink  like  a  fish  (arid  is  toofimd  of  his  cup.) 

He  has  on  dirty  stockings  (His  hose  are  not  neat)  and  muddy  shoes  (his 
shoes  are  soiled.) 

A  truly  genteel  man  (A  man  of  refinement)  is  known  as  well  by  his  talk 
(conversation)  as  by  his  clothes  (dress.)  He  never  uses  low  language  and 
vulgar  expressions  (indulges  in  loose  conversation.)  His  hands  and  face  and 
his  whole  body  are  well  washed,  he  cleans  his  teeth,  combs  his  hair,  (His 
whole  person  is  kept  neat  arid  cleanly,)  and  brushes  his  clothes  whenever  they 
are  dirty,  (his  dress  never  appears  to  be  soiled,)  and  he  always  looks  well,  as 
if  he  were  going  to  a  party,  (and  he  always  looks  prepared  for  the  drawing- 
room.) 

Of  the  oldest  of  the  English  Poets,  (Chaucer)  as  he  is  the  father  of 
English  poetry,  so  I  hold  him  in  the  same  degree  of  veneration  as  the 
Greeks  hold  Homer  (the  author  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey)  or  the  Romans, 
hold  Virgil  (the  author  of  the  JEneid.)  He  is  a  perpetual  fountain  of 
good  sense  ;  learned  in  all  sciences ;  and  therefore  he  speaks  properly  on 
all  subjects.  As  he  knew  what  to  say,  so  also  he  knows  where  to  leave 
off;  a  continence  which  is  practised  by  few  writers,  and  scarcely  by  any 
of  the  ancients,  excepting  the  authors  of  the  Iliad,  the  Odyssey  and  the 
^neid. 

The  author  of  the  Essay  on  the  Understanding  (Mr.  Locke)  has  ad- 
vanced the  opinion  that  moral  subjects  are  as  susceptible  of  demonstration 
as  mathematical. 

The  Bard  of  Avon  (Shakspeare)  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men 
that  the  world  ever  produced,  (that  ever  appeared  in  the  ranks  of  humanity.) 
It  may  truly  be  said  of  him  that  he  touched  nothing  which  he  did  not 
adorn ;  and  that  he  has  strewed  more  pearls  in  the  paths  of  literature  than 
any  other  poet  that  the  world  has  seen.  His  works  have  had  more  ad- 
mirers than  those  of  any  other  author  excepting  the  writers  of  the  holy 
Scriptures. 

The  science  which  treats  of  language,  (Grammar)  and  the  science  which 
describes  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants,  (Geography)  are  branches  frequent 
ly  studied,  but  too  frequently  imperfectly  understood. 

The  author  of  the  Waverley  novels  (Sir  Waker  Scott )  must  have  beeB 
a  man  of  remarkable  industry,  as  well  as  of  uncommon  talent 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  69 

XXI. 

TAUTOLOGY  AND  CATACHRESIS. 

Tautology  is  the  repetition  of  the  same  meaning  in  different 
^Drds,  or  the  needless  repetition  of  the  same  words. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  The  nefarious  wickedness  of  his  conduct  was 
reprobated  and  condemned  by  all,"  the  tautology  consists  in  the  use  of 
nefarious  and  wickedness  together ;  which  is  the  same  as  to  say,  the  wicked 
wickedness ;  and  reprobat^  and  condemned,  which  are  words  of  similar 
meaning.  So,  also,  in  the  sentence,  "  The  brilliance  of  the  sun  dazzles 
our  eyes,  and  overpowers  them  with  light,"  the  same  idea  is  conveyed  by 
the  word  "  dazzles  "  and  the  expression,  "  overpowers  them  with  light ; " 
one  of  them,  therefore,  should  be  omitted. 

Whenever  anything  is  represented  as  being  the  cause,  condition,  or 
consequence  of  itself,  it  may  also  be  considered  as  a  tautology,  as  in  the 
following  lines : 

"  The  dawn  is  overcast,  the  morning  lowers, 
And  heavily  in  clouds  b»ings  on  the  day." 

Addison. 
Tautologies  are  allowable  only  in  leg^  instruments,  and  other  writings 
where  precision  is  of  more  importance  Jian  elegance ;  when,  therefore,  it 
consists  in  the  repetition  of  a  word,  it  may  be  corrected  by  the  use  of  a 
Bynonyme ;  but  when  it  consists  in  the  repetition  of  an  idea,  unless  such 
repetition  is  important  for  clearness  or  for  emphasis,  it  should  be  wholly 
oppressed. 

Example. 

They  returned  hack  again  to  the  same  city  from  whence 
they  came  forth. 

In  this  sentence,  all  the  words  in  Italic  are  tautologies ;  for 
the  word  return  implies  to  turn  hack,  the  city  implies  the  same 
city,  and  from  and  forth  are  both  included  in  the  word  whence. 
The  sentence,  read  without  the  words  in  Italic,  is  as  clear  and 
expressive  as  words  can  make  it.  Words  which  do  not  add 
to  the  meaning  are  useless,  especially  in  prose. 

JExerdses. 

He  led  a  blameless  and  an  irreproachable  life,  and  no  one  could  censure 
iis  conduct. 
God  is  eternal,  and  his  existence  is  without  beginning  and  without  end 
Opium  produces  sleep,  because  it  possesses  a  soporific  quality. 
The  grass  grcws  because  of  its  vegetative  power. 


70  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

He  sat  on  the  verdant  green,  in  the  nmbrageoas  shade  of  the  wcodj 
forest. 

How  many  there  are  by  whom  these  tidings  of  good  news  have  never 
been  heard, 

Virgil  in  his  -^neid  tells  a  story  very  similar  to  that  which  Homer  teUs 
in  his  Odyssey.  But  the  one  relates  the  adventures  of  a  renowned  Tro- 
jan hero,  and  the  other  relates  the  adventures  of  a  renowned  Grecian 
hero. 

Our  sight  is  of  all  faculties  the  most  agreeable  when  we  indulge  it  in 
seeing  agreeable  objects ;  because  it  is  never  wearied  with  fatigue,  and  it 
requires  no  exertion  when  it  exerts  itself. 

He  succeeded  in  gaining  the  universal  love  of  all  men. 

A  father,  when  he  sees  his  child  going  to  the  silence  and  stillness  of 
the  tomb,  may  weep  and  lament  when  the  shadow  of  death  has  fully 
overshaded  him ;  and  as  he  hears  the  last  final  departing  knell  sounding 
in  his  ears,  may  say,  I  will  descend  and  go  down  to  the  grave  to  my  son 
mourning  in  sorrow.  But  he  turns  away  in  the  hurry  and  haste  of  busi- 
ness and  occupation ;  the  tear  is  wiped ;  his  eyes  are  dried ;  and  though 
when  he  returns  and  comes  back  to  his  domestic  hearth  and  fireside  at 
home,  the  playful  and  sportive  laugh  comes  up  to  his  remembrance,  and 
is  recalled  to  his  recollection,  the  succeding  day  blunts  and  removes  the 
poignancy  of  his  grief,  and  it  finds  no  permanent  and  lasting  seat. 

There  is  a  sweetness  and  sacred  holiness  in  a  mother's  tears,  when  they 
are  dropt  and  fall  on  the  face  of  her  dying  and  expiring  babe,  which  no 
eye  can  see,  and  no  one  can  behold  with  a  heart  untouched  and  unaf- 
fected. 

It  is  clear  and  obvious  that  n^igious  worship  and  adoration  shoul<' 
be  regarded  with  pleasure  by  all  men. 


CATACHRESIS. 

There  is  another  fault  into  which  careless  writers  are  prone 
to  fall,  which  is  the  very  reverse  of  tautology ;  and  to  which 
the  term  Catachresis*  may  not  be  inappropriately  applied ; 
and  this  is  the  use  of  the  same  word  in  different  senses. 


*  The  literal  meaning  of  Catachresis  is  against  use,  and  it  is  applied  by 
rhetoricians  to  express  a«  abuse,  or  false  itse  of  a  word,  by  which  it  is  wrest- 
ed from  its  original  application,  and  made  to  express  something  which  is  at 
variance  with  its  etymology.  It  is  a  sort  of  blundering  denomination, 
chiefly  caused  by  retaining  the  name  of  an  object,  alter  the  qualities  from 
which  it  derived  that  name  are  changed.  The  thing  that  is  made,  for  ex- 
ample, is  often  designated  by  that  of  the  substance  from  which  it  is  fabri 
cated.  Thus  a  vessel  in  which  liquids  are  boiled  is  called  a  copper,  because, 
in  most  cases,  it  is  made  of  that  material,  and  this  figure  is  a  Metaiiomy, 
But  such  vessels  are  occasionally  made  of  other  metals,  still  retaining  tJi« 
name  of  coppers,  and  it  is  this  misnomer  which  is  called  a  Catachresis 
From  this  explanation  it  will  appear  that  the  term  as  applied  above,  al 
though  not  rigidly  restricted  to  its  rhetorical  meaning,  is  not  wholly  inao 
oropriate. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  71 


Example. 

Charity  expands  our  hearts  in  love  to  God  and  man  ;  and 
it  is  by  the  virtue  of  charity  that  the  rich  are  blessed,  and  the 
poor  are  supplied. 

In  this  sentence  the  word  charity  is  improperly  applied  in 
two  different  senses,  namely,  for  the  highest  benevolence,  and 
for  simple  alms-giving. 

Exercises. 

Gregory  favored  the  undertaking  for  no  other  reason  than  this,  that  the 
manager  in  countenance  favored  {i.  c.  resembled)  his  friend. 

True  wit  is  nature  to  advantage  dressed ;  and  yet  some  works  have 
more  wit  than  does  them  good. 

Honor  teaches  us  to  respect  ourselves,  and  to  violate  no  right  nor  priv 
ilege  of  our  neighbor.  It  leads  us  to  support  the  feeble,  to  relieve  the 
distressed,  and  to  scorn  to  be  governed  by  degrading  and  injurious  pas- 
sions. And  yet  we  see  honor  is  the  motive  which  ui-ges  the  destroyer  to 
take  the  life  of  his  friend. 

The  minister  proposed  a  plan  for  the  support  of  the  ministers  of  the 
church. 

The  professor  was  a  professor  of  religion. 

I  expect  that  you  have  no  reason  to  expect  the  arrival  of  your  friend.* 


xxn. 

PLEONASM,  VERBOSITT,  AND  REDUNDANCY. 

Pleonasm  consists  in  the  use  of  words  seemingly  superflu- 
ms,  in  order  to  express  a  thought  with  greater  energy :  as, 
"  I  saw  it  with  my  own  eyes."  Here  the  pleonasm  consists  in 
the  addition  of  the  expression,  "  with  my  own  eyes.* 

Pleonasms  are  usually  considered  as  faults,  especially  in  prose.    BuU 


*  It  will  be  seen  from  what  has  been  said  in  relation  to  the  word  Cata 
ehresis  that  it  is  the  foundation  of  many  witticisms,  under  the  denominatior 
i/f  pararwrncuia,  or  pirn.     \  Se*  ■'^aranominna  ] 


72  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

m  poetry,  they  may  be  simringly  allowed  as  poetical  litenaes  *  Thej 
are  allowable,  also,  in  animated  discourse,  to  introduce  abruptly  an  em- 
phatic word,  or  to  repeat  an  idea  to  impress  it  more  strongly ;  as,  "  He  that 
hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear."    "  I  know  thee  who  thou  art." 

Pleonasm  is  nearly  allied  to  tautology,  but  is  occasionally  a  less  glaring 
fault  in  a  sentence ;  and,  indeed,  it  may  be  considered  justifiable,  ancl 
even  sometimes  elegant,  when  we  wish  to  present  thoughts  with  particu 
lar  perspicuity  or  force ;  but  an  unemphatic  repetition  of  the  same  idea  is 
one  of  the  worst  of  faults  in  writing. 

Pleonasm  implies  merely  superfluity.  Although  the  words  do  not.  a.^ 
in  tautology,  repeat  the  sense,  they  add  nothing  to  it. 

Pleonasm  differs,  also,  from  what  is  called  verbosity.  Verbosity,  it  is 
true,  implies  a  superabundance  of  words ;  but,  in  a  pleonasm  there  are 
words  which  add  nothing  to  the  sense.  In  the  verbose  manner,  not  only 
single  words,  but  whole  clauses,  may  have  a  meaning,  and  yet  it  woula 
be  better  to  omit  them,  because  what  they  mean  is  unimportant. 

Another  difference  is,  that,  in  a  pleonasm,  a  complete  correction  may 
be  made,  by  simply  omitting  the  superfluous  words ;  but,  in  a  verbose 
sentence,  it  will  be  necessary  to  alter,  as  well  as  to  omit. 

It  is  a  good  rule,  always  to  look  over  what  has  been  written,  and  to 
strike  out  every  word  and  clause,  which  it  is  found  will  leave  the  sentence 
neither  less  clear,  nor  less  forcible,  than  it  was  before.  * 

There  are  many  sentences  which  would  not  bear  the  omission  of  a  single 
word,  without  affecting  the  clearness  and  force  of  the  expression,  and  which 
would  be  very  much  improved,  were  they  recast,  and  the  sense  expressed 
by  fewer  and  more  forcible  words.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  the  following 
sentence,  no  word  can  be  omitted  without  affecting  the  sense. 

"  A  severe  and  tyrannical  exercise  of  power  must  become  a  matter  of 
necessary  policy  with  kings,  when  their  subjects  are  imbued  with  such 
principles  as  justify  and  authorize  rebellion." 

But  the  same  sense  may  be  much  better  expressed  in  fewer  words, 
thus; 

"  Kings  will  be  tyrants  from  policy,  when  subjects  are  rebels  from  prin 
ciple." 

Redundancy  is  another  term,  also  employed  to  signify, 
superfluity  in  the  words  and  members  of  a  sentence.  Pleo- 
nasm and  verbosity  relate,  principally,  to  the  words  in  a  sen- 
tence, but  redundancy  relates  to  the  members  as  well  as  the 
words.  As  every  word  ought  to  present  a  new  idea,  so  every 
member  ought  to  contain  a  new  thought.  The  following  sen- 
tence exemplifies  the  fault  of  redundancy.  "  The  very  first 
discovery  of  it  strikes  the  mind  with  inward  joy,  and  spreads 
delight  through  all  its  faculties."  In  this  example,  little  or 
nothing  is  added  by  the  second  member  of  the  sentence,  to 
what  was  expressed  in  the  first. 


*  See  the  article  on  Poetical  lAcenr*. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  73 

The  following  sentences  present  examples  of  pleonasm, 
verbosity,  and  redundancy,  which  may  be  corrected  by  the 
learner. 

Mxercises, 

The  rain,  is  it  not  over  and  gone  ?    I  hear  ne  wind,  only  the  voice  ot 

the  streams. 

My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees. 

It  is  impossible  for  us  to  behold  the  divine  works  with  coldness  or  m 
diiFerence,  or  to  survey  so  many  beauties,  without  a  secret  satisfaction 
and  complacency. 

Thy  rod  and  thy  staiF  they  comfort  me. 

This  great  poUtician  desisted  from,  and  renounced  his  designs,  when 
he  found  them  impracticable. 

He  was  of  so  high  and  independent  a  spirit,  that  he  abhorred  and  de- 
tested being  in  debt. 

Though  raised  to  an  exalted  station,  she  was  a  pattern  of  piety,  virtue, 
and  religion. 

The  human  body  may  be  divided  into  the  head,  trunk,  limbs,  and 
vitals. 

His  end  soon  ai)proached ;  and  he  died  with  great  courage  and  fortitude. 

He  was  a  man  of  so  much  pride  and  vanity,  that  he  despised  the  senti- 
ments of  others. 

Poverty  induces  and  cherishes  dependence ;  and  dependence  strength 
ens  and  increases  corruption. 

This  man,  on  all  occasions,  treated  his  inferiors  with  great  haughtiness 
and  disdain. 

There  can  be  no  regularity  or  order  in  the  life  and  conduct  of  that  man 
who  docs  not  give  and  allot  a  due  share  of  his  time  to  retirement  and 
reflection. 

Such  equivocal  and  ambiguous  expressions,  mark  a  formed  intention 
to  deceive  and  abuse  us. 

His  cheerful,  happy  temper,  remote  from  discontent,  keeps  up  a  kind 
of  daylight  in  his  mind,  excludes  every  gloomy  prospect,  and  fills  it  with 
a  steady  and  perpetual  serenity. 

Being  content  with  deserving  a  triumph,  he  refused  the  honor  of  it 

In  the  Attic  commonwealth,  it  was  the  privilege  of  every  citizen  and 
poet  to  rail  aloud  in  public. 


xxin. 

VAEIETr  OF  EXPEESSION. 

The  various  modes  of  transposition  and  inversion,  by  which 
the  same  idea  can  be  expressed  by  dilBferent  inflections  of  the 
words  have  already  been  presented.    In  this  exercise  the 

7 


74  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

modes  are  suggested  by  which  the  idea  may  be  cl  Ahed  in 
different  language,  still,  for  the  most  part  pr«servinf,  it^ 
identity.* 


Example  Ist. 

The  young  should  be  diligent  and  industrious,  and  make  a 
proper  use  of  their  time. 

Diligence,  industry,  and  proper  improvement  of  time  are 
material  duties  of  the  young. 

Young  men,  be  industrious;  make  the  best  use  of  your 
time  ;  an  awful  responsibility  rests  upon  you. 

Young  persons  should  be  made  sensible,  that  it  is  their 
duty  to  be  diligent  and  industrious,  and  to  employ  their  time 
in  useful  pursuits. 

To  be  diligent  and  industrious,  and  to  employ  their  time  in 
profitable  occupations,  are  things  which  we  expect  from  young 
persons. 

In  the  morning  of  life,  when  the  phantoms  of  hope  are  flit- 
ting before  their  sight,  and  the  visions  of  fancy  are  decorating 
their  prospects,  the  young  should  not  suffer  themselves  to  be 
deluded  by  expectations  which  cannot  be  realized.  The 
golden  sands  should  not  be  wantonly  wasted  in  their  path, 
nor  should  the  precious  moments  of  life  be  suffered  to  take 
flight,  without  bearing  on  their  wings  some  token  of  their 
value. 

Duty  addresses  the  young  in  an  imperative  tone,  requiring 
them  to  apply  themselves  with  diligence  to  their  proper  occu- 
pations, and  forbidding  them  to  pay  one  moment  but  in  pur- 
chase of  its  worth.  "  And  what  is  its  worth  ?  —  Ask  death- 
beds ;  they  can  tell." 

Young  persons  cannot  be  commended  when  they  devote 
those  hours  to  indolence,  which  should  have  been  given  to 
industry ;  for  time  is  valuable,  and  should  be  properly  em- 
ployed. 


*  It  is  to  be  observed,  that,  in  the  practice  of  the  principle  involved  in 
this  exercise,  the  teacher  should  not  be  too  riojid  in  noticing  the  faults  of 
pleonasm,  verbosity,  or  redundancy.  The  object  of  the  exercite  is  to  give 
a  command  of  language,  and  it  will  be  well,  when  this  object  is  partially 
effected,  to  renuire  the  learner  to  take  his  own  sentences  and  prune  them 
ou  the  principles  explained  in  the  preceding  exercises. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSTION.  75 

The  young  should  be  diligent  and  industrious,  and  properly 
improve  their  time.* 

It  is  not  only  when  duty  addresses  them  with  her  warning 
voice  that  the  young  should  practi&i  the  virtues  of  diligence 
and  industry ;  a  proper  improvement  of  their  time  is  at  all 
times  expected  from  them. 

Example  2d.  ' 

[The  different  modes  of  expressing  the  same  idea  giv** 
rise  to  the  distinctions  of  style  which  have  been  mentioned  in 
the  Introduction.  The  subject  of  style  will  be  more  fully 
treated  in  the  subsequent  pages.  The  following  sentence  will 
exemplify  to  the  student  the  effect  of  two  of  the  varieties  of 
style.] 

Style  of  simple  Narration. 

Yesterday  morning,  as  I  was  walking  in  the  fields,  I  aaw 
John  stab  James  through  the  heart  with  a  dagger. 

Style  of  passionate  exclamation,  in  which  the  prominent  idea 
is  brought  forward,  and  the  circumstances  are  cast  into  the 
fhade. 

James  is  murdered !     I  saw  John  stab  him  to  the  heart. 

N 

Exercises. 

[The  student  must  be  careful  to  make  use  of  his  understanding  and  di» 
crimination,  as  well  as  his  dictioiiary,  in  the  performance  of  these  exei 
cises.] 

True  friendship  is  like  sound  health,  the  value  of  it  is  seldom  known 
rintil  it  is  lost. 

As  no  roads  are  so  rough  as  those  that  have  just  been  mended,  so  no 
sinners  are  so  intolerant  as  those  that  have  just  turned  saints. 

"WTien  certain  persons  abuse  us,  let  us  ask  ourselves  what  descriptioD 
of  characters  it  is  that  they  admire ;  we  shall  often  find  this  a  very  con- 
solatory question. 


*  In  the  Introduction  to  this  book,  notice  was  taken  of  the  diflferent 
forms,  or  style,  of  composition.  In  this  model,  an  attempt  has  been  made 
to  imitate  several  of  the  diversities  of  style  there  mentioned ;  and  it  will 
DC  useful  to  the  student,  when  he  shall  have  become  acquainted  with  the 
diversities  of  style,  in  the  subsequent  pages  of  this  volume,  to  endeavor  to 
designate  them  respectively  by  their  peculiar  characteristics.  It  may  here 
be  remarked,  that  the  style  of  common  conversation,  called  the  colhquiai 
style,  allows  the  introduction  of  terns  and  expressions,  which  are  not  used 
in  grave  writirur. 


76  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Contemporaries  appreciate  the  man  rather  than  the  merit;  but  po» 
terity  will  regard  the  merit  rather  than  the  man. 

All  beyond  enough  is  too  much;  all  beyond  nourishment  is  luxury 
all  beyond  decency  is  extravagance- 
Form  your  taste  on  the  classics,  and  your  principles  on  the  book  of  all 
truth. 

Let  the  first  fruits  of  your  intellect  be  laid  before  the  altar  of  Him  who 
breathed  i  nto  your  nostrils  the  breath  of  life ;  and  with  that  breath,  your 
immortal  spirit. 

The  love  of  learning,  though  truly  commendable,  must  never  be  grati- 
fied beyond  a  certain  limit.  It  must  not  be  indulged  in  to  the  injury  of 
your  health,  nor  to  the  hindrance  of  your  virtue. 

What  will  the  fame  derived  from  the  most  profound  learning  avail  you, 
if  you  have  not  learned  to  be  pious  and  humble,  and  temperate  and 
charitable. 

There  is  nothing  more  extraordinary  in  this  country,  than  the  tran 
sition  of  the  seasons.    The  people  of  Moscow  have  no  spring.    Winter 
vanishes,  and  summer  is.     This  is  not  the  work  of  a  week,  or  of  a  day 
out  of  one  instant ;  and  the  manner  of  it  exceeds  belief. 
On  eagles'  wings  immortal  scandals  fly, 
While  virtuous  actions  are  but  bom  and  die. 


XXIV. 


TRANSLATION,  OR  CONVERSION  OF  POETRY  INTO 
PROSE. 

Poetry  when  literally  translated  makes  in  general  but  in- 
sipid prose.  Prose  is  the  language  of  reason,  —  poetry  of 
icchng  or  passion.  Prose  is  characterized  by  fulness  and 
precision.  Poetry  deals  largely  in  elliptical  expressions, 
exclamations,  exaggerations,  apostrophes,  and  other  peculiari- 
tie^j  not  usually  found  in  prose.  For  the  purpose,  also,  of 
accommodating  them  to  the  measure  of  a  verse,  the  poets  fre- 
quently alter  or  abbreviate  words,  and  use  expressions  which 
would  not  be  authorized  in  prose.  Such  abbreviations  and 
alterations,  together  with  other  changes  sometimes  made,  are 
called  poetic  licencesy  because  they  are  principally  used  by 
poetical  writers. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  licences  used  by  poetical  writers . 
1.  Elision,  or  the  omission  of  parts  of  a  word.    When  the  elision  ia 
frf>m  the  beginning  of  a  word,  it  is  called  ccphceresis,  and  consist*  in  cut 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  77 

ting  off  the  initial  letter  or  syllable  of  a  word;  as,  ^squire  for  esguire 
'gaittst  for  against,  'gan  for  began,  &c.  When  the  elision  is  from  the  bodj 
of  the  Avord,  it  is  called  syncope ;  as,  lisfning  for  listeni'/ig,  thuncfring  foi 
Sundering,  lov'd  for  loved,  &e.  When  the  elision  is  from  the  end  of  a  word. 
it  is  called  apocope,  and  consists  in  the  cutting  off  of  a  final  vowel  or  syl 
lable,  or  of  one  or  more  letters  ;  as,  gi^  me  for  give  me,  fro^  for  from,  o'  foi 
of,  th!  evening  for  the  evening,  PhilomeC  for  Philomela. 

2.  STNiEREsrs,  or  the  contraction  of  two  syllables  into  one,  by  rapidlj 
pronouncing  in  one  syllable  two  or  more  vowels  which  properly  belong  to 
separate  syllables ;  as  ac  in  the  word  Israel. 

3.  Apostrophe,  or  the  contraction  of  two  words  into  one ;  as,  V  is  f 
it  is,  can't  for  cannot,  thou  h't  for  thou  art. 

4.  Diuresis,  or  the  division  of  one  syllable  into  two ;  as,  pu-is-sani  foi 
puissant. 

5.  Paragoge  or  the  addition  of  an  expletive  letter;  withouten  for  w^A 
ouJt,  crou^hen  for  crouch. 

6.  Prosthesis,  or  the  prefixing  of  an  expletive  letter  or  syllable  V  » 
word ;  as,  appertinent  for  pertinent,  beloved  for  loved. 

7.  Enallage,  or  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another ;  as  in  the 
following  lines,  in  which  an  adjective  is  used  for  an  adverb ;  as, 

"  Blue  through  the  dusk  the  smoking  currents  shine." 
''  The  fearful  hare  limps  awkward." 

8.  Htperbaton,  or  the  inversion  or  transposition  of  words,  placing 
that  first  which  should  be  last ;  as, 

"  And  though,  sometimes,  each  dreary  pause  between." 
"  Him  answered  then  his  loving  mate  and  true." 

9.  Pleonasm,  or  the  use  of  a  greater  number  of  words  than  are  neces 
»ary  to  express  the  meaning ;  as, 

"  My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees." 

10.  Tmesis,  or  the  separation  of  the  parts  of  a  compound  word ;  as, 
On  which  side  soever,  for,  On  whichsoever  side. 

11.  Ellipsis,  or  the  omission  of  some  parts  not  absolutely  essential  to 
express  the  meaning,  but  necessary  to  complete  the  grammatical  con- 
struction. 

The  poets  have  likewise  other  peculiarities  which  are  embraced  undei 
the  general  name  of  poetic  diction.  In  order  to  accommodate  their  lan- 
guage to  the  rules  of  melody,  and  that  they  may  be  relieved,  in  some 
measure,  from  the  restraints  which  verse  imposes  on  them,  they  are  in- 
dulged in  the  following  usages,  seldom  allowable  in  prose. 

1.  They  abbreviate  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  adverbs,  &c. ;  as,  mom  for 
morning,  amaze  for  amazement,  fount  for  fountain,  dread  for  dreadful,  lone  for 
lonely,  lure  for  allure,  list  for  listen,  ope  for  open,  oft  for  often,  haply  for  hap 
pily,  &c.,  and  use  obsolete  words  *  and  obsolete  meanings. 


*  Obsolete  words  are  words  which,  although  formerly  current,  are  not 
now  in  common  use. 

7* 


78  AIDS    rO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

2.  They  make  use  of  ellipses  more  frequently  than  prose  writers 
omitting  the  article,  the  relative  pronoun,  and  sometimes  even  its  ante- 
cedent ;  using  the  auxiliaries  without  the  principal  verb  to  which  they  be- 
long ;  and  on  the  contrary,  they  also  sometimes  make  use  of  repetitions 
which  are  seldom  observed  in  prose. 

3.  They  use  the  infinitive  mood  for  a  noun ;  use  adjectives  for  adverbs, 
and  sometimes  even  for  nouns ;  and  nouns  for  adjectives  ;  ascribe  quali' 
ties  to  things,  to  which  they  do  not  literally  belong ;  form  new  compound 
epithets  ;  connect  the  word  self  with  nouns,  as  well  as  pronouns ;  some- 
times lengthen  a  word  by  an  additional  letter  or  syllable,  and  give  to  the 
imperative  mood  both  the  first  and  third  persons. 

4.  They  arbitrarly  employ  or  omit  the  prefixes ;  use  active  for  neuter 
and  neuter  for  active  verbs ;  employ  participles  and  interjections  more 
frequently  than  prose  writers ;  connect  words  that  are  not  in  all  respects 
similar ;  and  use  conjunctions  in  pairs  contrary  to  grammatical  rule. 

5.  They  alter  the  regular  arrangement  of  the  words  of  a  sentence, 
placing  before  the  verb  words  which  usually  come  after  it,  and  after  the 
verb  those  that  usually  come  before  it,  putting  adjectives  after  their  nounS; 
the  auxiliary  after  the  principal  verb ;  the  preposition  after  the  objective 
case  which  it  governs ;  the  relative  before  the  antecedent  5  the  infinitive 
mood  before  the  word  which  governs  it ;  and  they  also  use  one  mood  nf 
the  verb  for  another,  employ  forms  of  expression  similar  to  those  of  othe» 
languages,  and  diff"erent  from  tliose  which  belong  to  the  English  language 

But  one  of  the  most  objectionable  features  of  poetic  diction  is  the  ic 
terjection  of  numerous  details,  between  those  parts  of  a  sentence  which 
are  closely  combined  by  the  rules  of  Syntax.  Thus,  in  the  following  ex 
tract  from  one  of  the  most  celebrated  poets  of  the  language,  generally 
characterized  by  the  simplicity  of  his  diction,  the  objective  case  is  placed 
before  the  verb  which  governs  it,  while  a  number  of  circumstances  are 
introduced  between  them. 

But  jne,  not  destined  such  delights  to  share,  , 

My  prime  of  life  in  wandering  spent  and  care, 
Impelled,  with  steps  unceasing,  to  pursue 
Some  fleeting  good,  that  mocks  me  with  the  view, 
That,  like  the  circle  bounding  earth  and  skies. 
Allures  from  far,  yet,  as  I  follow,  flies; 
My  fortune  Icada  to  traverse  realms  alone, 
And  find  no  spot  of  all  the  world  my  own. 

£Jxercises. 

[in  the  following  extracts,  the  studeyit  may  point  out  the  penih'arities  of 
POETIC  DICTION,  which  have  now  been  enumerated.  The  words  in  Itaiu 
will  assist  him  in  recognizing  them.] 

The  cottage  curs  at  early  pilgrim  bark. 

The  pipe  of  early  shepherd. 

Aflliction's  sr//" deplores  thy  youthful  doom, 

Wliat  dreadful  pleasure,  there  to  stand  sublime, 

Like  »hip wrecked  mariner  on  desert  coast '. 

Ah !  see !  the  unsightly  slime  and  sluggish  pool, 

Have  all  the  solitary  tme  embrowned 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  79 

Hereditary  bondmen  !    Know  ye  not 

Who  would  be  free  themselves  m^ist  strike  the  blo^r? 

No^re  the  kitchen's  cheerless  grate  displayed. 

Efliux  aimne .'  nature's  resplendent  robe 
And  thou,  O  sun ! 
Soul  of  surrounding  worlds !  in  whom  best  seen, 
Shines  out  thy  3faker ;  may  I  sing  of  thee ! 

Earth's  meanest  son,  all  trembling,  prostrate  falls, 
And  on  the  boundless  of  thy  goodness  calls. 

In  world-rejoicing  state  it  moves  sublime. 

Oft  in  the  stillg  night. 

For  is  there  aught  in  sleep  can  charm  the  wise  ? 

And  Peace,  O  Virtue  !  Peace  is  all  thy  own. 

Be  it  dapple's  bray, 

Or  be  it  not,  or  be  it  whose  it  may. 

Wealth  heaped  on  wealth,  nor  truth  nor  safety  buya. 

And  sculpture  that  can  keep  thee  from  to  die. 

The  Muses  fair,  these  peaceful  shades  among, 
With  skilful  fingers  sweep  the  trembling  strings. 

Behoves  no  more, 
But  sidelong  to  the  gently  waving  wind, 
To  lay  the  well-tuned  instrument  rechned. 

Had  unambitious  mortals  minded  nought 
But  in  loose  joy  their  time  to  wear  away, 
Bude  nat'ore's  state  aad  been  *  our  state  to-day 

In  the  following  exercises  the  learner  is  expected  to  vnite 
the  ideas  conveyed  in  the  poetical  extracts,  in  prose,  varying 
the  words  and  expressions,  as  well  as  the  arrangement  of 


*  This  form  of  expression,  where  one  mood  of  the  verb  is  used  for  another, 
18  sometimes  imitated  by  prose  writers.  Thus, "  Sixty  summers  had  passed 
over  his  head  without  imparting  one  ray  of  warmth  to  his  heart ;  without 
exciting  one  tender  feeling  for  the  sex,  deprived  of  whose  cheering  presence, 
the  paradise  of  the  world  were  a  wilderness  of  weeds." — New  Monthly 
Magazine.  In  this  extract,  the  imperfect  of  the  subjunctive  is  used  without 
its  attendant  conjunction  for  the  pluperfect  of  the  potential.  Cowper  has 
ft  similar  expression  in  his  fable  entitled  "  The  Needless  Alarm,"  where  he 
uses  th3  pluperfect  of  the  indicative  for  the  pluperfect  of  the  potentiaJ  ? 
thus, 

"  Awhile  they  mused ;  surveying  every  face. 
Thou  fiadst  supposed  them  of  superior  race." 


80  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

them,  so  as  to  maie  clear  and  distinct  sentences,  *  as  in  the 
following 

Example. 

Reason's  whole  pleasure,  all  the  joy  of  sense. 

Lie  in  three  words,  —  health,  peace  and  competence. 

Same  idea  expressed  in  prose. 

Health,  peace,  and  competence  comprise  all  the  pleasures 
which  this  world  can  afford. 

Example  2d. 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 

Same  line  transposed  in  a,  tariety  of  ways. 
The  ploughman  plods  his  weary  way  homeward. 
Homeward  the  ploughman  plods  his  weary  way. 
His  weary  way  homeward  the  ploughman  plod-?. 
Plods  the  ploughman  homeward  his  weary  way. 
His  weary  way  the  ploughman  plods  homeward. 
Homeward  plods  the  ploughman  his  weary  way. 
The  ploughman  his  weary  way  homeward  plods. 
Plods  homeward  the  ploughman  his  weary  way. 
Homeward  plods  the  ploughman  his  weary  way. 
His  weary  way  the  ploughman  homeward  plods,  «fec. 

The  example  shows  that  it  is  not  always  necessary  to 
change  the  language,  in  order  to  convert  poetry  into  prose. 
Of  the  ten  modes  in  which  the  above  recited  line  has  been 
transposed,  it  will  be  noticed  that  several  of  them  are  entirely 
prosaic. 

It  may  here  be  remarked  that  in  the  conversion  of  poetry  into 

*  Sir  Walter  Scott,  in  a  letter  to  his  son,  ( See  Lockharfs  Lifr.,  Vol.  F.,  p. 
54,)  has  the  followincr  langnage:  "You  should  exercise  yourself  frequently 
in  trying  to  make  ti-anslations  of  the  passages  which  most  strike  vou,  trving 
to  invest  the  sense  of  Tacitus  in  as  good  English  as  you  can.  This  will  an 
8wer  the  double  purpose  of  making  yourself  familiar  with  the  Latin  author, 
and  giving  you  tne  command  of  vour  own  language,  which  no  person  tviU 
ever  have,  who  does  vot  stttihf  t^lnglisJi  Composition  in  early  life."  The 
conversion  of  verse  into  prose  it  is  conceived  will,  at  least  in  a  good  degn*«», 
subserve  the  same  useful  purpose  of  giving  command  of  language ;  and  for 
this  reason  the  exercises  in  this  lesson,  or  similar  ones,  cannot  be  too 
strongly  recommended,  especially  to  those  whose  minds  have  not  bean 
discipUned  by  an  attention  to  the  classics. 


AIDS    lO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  81 

prose,  the  animation  of  the  style  is  often  endangered.  Poetry 
admits  more  ornament  than  prose,  and  especially  a  more  lib- 
eral use  of  that  figure  (Prosopopoeia  or  Personification)  by 
which  Ufe  and  action  are  attributed  to  inanimate  objects. 
The  ex:ercises,  therefore,  of  the  pupil,  in  converting  poetry  into 
prose,  will  be  deemed  useful  only  as  tending  to  give  clear  ideas 
and  command  of  language.  * 

The  learner  is  presumed  now  to  be  prepared  to  transpose 
simple  tales  and  stories  from  verse  into  prose,  with  some 
additions  of  his  own.  Such  exercises  will  be  found  of  much 
use,  not  only  in  acquiring  command  of  language,  but  also  as 
an  exercise  of  the  imagination.  In  performing  these  exer- 
cises, the  greatest  latitude  may  be  allowed,  and  the  learner 
may  be  permitted  not  only  to  alter  the  language,  but  to  sub- 
stitute his  own  ideas,  and  to  vary  the  circumstances,  so  as  to 
make  the  exercise  as  nearly  an  original  one  as  he  can. 

Example. 

The  following  short  tale,  or  story  in  verse,  is  presented  to  be  converted 
into  a  tale  in  prose. 

GINEVRA. 

If  ever  you  should  come  to  Modena, 
(Where,  among  other  relics,  you  may  see 
Tassoni's  bucket,  —  but 't  is  not  the  true  one,) 
Stop  at  a  palace  near  the  Reggio  gate. 
Dwelt  in  of  old  by  one  of  the  Donati. 
Its  noble  gardens,  terrace  above  terrace. 
And  rich  in  fountains,  statues,  cypresses, 
Will  long  detain  you,  —  but,  before  you  go. 
Enter  the  house,  —  forget  it  not,  I  pray  you,  — 
And  look  awhile  upon  a  picture  there. 

'T  is  of  a  lady  in  her  earliest  youth. 
The  last  of  that  illustrious  family ; 
Done  by  Zampieri,  —  but  by  whom  I  care  not.  v 

He  who  observes  it,  ere  he  passes  on. 
Gazes  his  fill,  and  comes  and  comes  again, 
That  he  may  call  it  up  when  far  away. 

She  sits,  inclining  foi-ward  as  to  speak, 
Her  lips  half  open,  and  her  finger  up. 
As  though  she  said  "  Beware  ! "  her  vest  of  gold 
'Broidered  with  flowers,  and  clasped  from  head  to  foot, 
An  emerald  stonp  in  every  golden  clasp ; 

♦  Any  volume  of  poetical  Extracts  will  furnish  additional  exercises  for 
the  student.  It  is  therefore  deemed  inexpedient  to  present  in  this  volume 
an  additional  number  of  them. 


82  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

And  on  her  brow,  fairer  than  alabaster 
A  coronet  of  pearls. 

But  then  her  face, 
So  lovely,  yet  so  arch,  so  fixU  of  mirth, 
The  overflowinj^s  of  an  innocent  heart, — 
It  haunts  me  still,  though  many  a  year  has  fled, 
Like  some  wild  melody ! 

Alone  it  hangs 
Over  a  mouldering  heirloom,  its  companion, 
An  oaken  chest,  half  eaten  by  the  worms, 
But  richly  carved  by  Antony  of  Trent 
With  scripture-stories  from  the  hfe  of  Christ; 
A  chest  that  came  from  Venice,  and  had  held 
The  ducal  robes  of  some  old  ancestor ;  — 
That  by  the  way,  —  it  may  be  true  or  false,  — 
But  don't  forget  the  picture ;  and  you  will  not 
When  you  have  heard  the  tale  they  old  me  there 
She  was  an  only  child,  —  her  name  Ginevra, 
The  joy,  the  pride  of  an  indulgent  father ; 
And  in  her  fifteenth  year  became  a  bride, 
Marrying  an  only  son,  Francesco  Doria, 
Her  playmate  from  her  birth,  and  her  first  love. 
Just  as  she  looks  there  in  her  bridal  dress, 
She  was  all  gentleness,-  all  gaiety. 
Her  pranks  tne  favorite  themt  of  every  tongue. 
But  now  the  day  was  come,  the  day,  the  hour ; 
Now,  frowning,  smiling,  for  the  hundredth  time, 
The  nurse,  that  ancient  lady,  preached  decorum^ 
And,  in  the  lustre  of  her  youth,  she  gave 
Her  hand,  with  her  heart  in  it,  to  Francesco. 
Great  was  the  joy ;  but  at  the  nuptial  feast. 
When  all  sate  do\vn,  the  bride  herself  was  wanting 
Nor  was  she  to  be  found !     Her  father  cried, 
"  'T  is  but  to  make  a  trial  of  our  love  !  " 
And  filled  his  glass  to  all;  but  his  hand  shook, 
And  soon  from  guest  to  guest  the  panic  spread. 
'T  was  but  that  instant  sue  had  left  Francesco, 
Laughing,  and  looking  back  and  flying  still. 
Her  ivory  tooth  imprinted  on  his  finger. 
But  now,  alas,  sbe  was  not  to  be  found ; 
Nor  from  tharhour  could  any  thing  be  guessed, 
But  that  she  was  not  I 

Weary  of  his  life, 
Francesco  flew  to  Venice,  and  embarking. 
Flung  it  away  in  battle  with  the  Turk. 
Donati  hved,  —  and  long  might  you  have  seen 
An  old  man  wandering  as  in  quest  of  something. 
Something  he  could  not  find,  —  he  knew  not  what. 
When  ho  was  gone,  the  house  remained  awhile 
Silent  and  tenantlcss,  —  then  went  to  strangers. 

Full  fifty  years  were  past,  and  all  forgotten. 
When,  on  an  idle  day,  a  day  of  search 
'Mid  the  old  lumber'in  the  gallery, 
That  mouldering  chest  was  noticea  ;  and  't  was  said 
By  one  as  young,  as  thoughtless  as  Ginevra, 
"  Why  not  remove  it  from  its  lurking-place  ?  " 
'T  was  done  as  soon  as  said ;  but  on  the  way 
I  It  buret,  it  fell ;  and  lo  !  a  skeleton 

With  hero  and  there  a  pearl,  an  emerald-stone, 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  83 

A  gDlden  clasp,  clasping  a  shred  of  gold. 
All  else  had  perished,  —  save  a  wedding  ring, 
And  a  small  seal,  her  mother's  legacy, 
Engraven  with  a  name,  the  name  of  both  — 

"  Ginevra" 

There  then  had  she  found  a  grave  • 
Within  that  chest  had  she  concealed  herself, 
Fluttering  with  joy,  the  happiest  of  the  happy ; 
When  a  spring-lock,  that  lay  in  ambush  there, 
Fastened  her  down  for  ever ! 


Conversion  of  the  preceding  Story  into  Pr^se, 

THE   LEGEND    OP   MODENA.* 

In  an  elegant  apartment  of  a  palace  overlooking  the  Reggio  gate  in 
Modena,  which,  about  fifty  years  before,  belonged  to  the  noble  family  of 
Donati,  but  which  now  was  occupied  by  a  very  distant  branch  of  that 
illustrious  race,  sat  the  loveliest  of  its  descendants  —  the  beautiful  Bea- 
trice, the  flower  of  Modena.  Upon  the  marble  table  and  embroidered 
ottomans  before  her,  lay  a  variety  of  rich  costumes,  which  her  favorite 
attendant,  Laura,  was  arranging  where  their  rich  folds  fell  most  grace- 
fully, and  their  bright  tints  mocked  the  rainbows  hues  of  colored  light ; 
for  the  fair  Beatrice  was  selecting  a  becoming  attire  for  a  masquerade  ball, 
which  was  to  be  given  during  the  gay  season  of  the  approaching  Carni- 
val. But  a  shadow  of  discontent  rested  on  her  brow,  as  she  surveyed 
the  splendid  dresses — they  were  too  common-place  —  and  she  turned 
from  them  with  disdain.  Suddenly  her  eye  rested  upon  an  antique  pic- 
ture, hanging  on  the  tapestried  wall,  which  represented  a  young  and 
beautiful  figure  in  the  attitude  of 

"  Inclining  forward,  as  to  speak, 
Her  lips  half  open  and  her  finger  up, 
As  though  she  said  '  Beware  !  '  her  vest  of  gold 
Broidered  with  flowers  and  elapsed  from  head  to  foot, 
An  emerald  stone  in  every  golden  clasp, 
And  on  her  brow  —  a  coronet  of  pearls. ' ' 

Pushing  aside  the  costly  silks  and  velvets,  she  ran  to  look  at  the  pic- 
ture more  closely.  The  lady's  dress  was  perfect,  she  thought ;  it  just 
suited  her  capricious  taste,  and  one  like  it  she  determined  to  have  and 
wear,  at  the  approaching  festival.  In  vain  Laura  expostulated,  and  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  such  an  antiquated  costume  was  brought  to  her 
mind,  and  finally,  the  legend  connected  with  the  portrait  was  begun. 
But  the  wilful  Beatrice  would  not  listen,  although  a  destiny,  sad  as  that 
of  the  ill-fated  lady  of  the  portrait  was  predicted,  if  she  persevered  in  her 
whim.  Regardless  of  remonstrance,  Beatrice  proceeded  to  search  among 
the  finery  of  her  ancestors  for  something  to  correspond  with  the  dress 
which  she  determined  to  have,  spite  of  all  their  old  legends,  whi-^h  she 


*  This  *'  Legend  "  was  written  by  a  young  lady  of  about  thirteen  ye'^ra 
of  age,  and  presented  as  an  exercise  at  the  public  school  in  this  ^ity,  un''or 
the  charge  of  the  author. 


84  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

did  not  believe.  But  she  seaiclied  in  vain,  and  she  was  returning  through 
the  gallery  almost  in  despair,  when  her  attention  was  attracted  by  an  old 

"  Oaken  chest  half  eaten  by  the  -worms. 
And  richly  carved," 

which  she  thought  might  contain  something  suitable.  Impatiently  she 
waited,  whUe  her  attendants  lifted  the  mouldering  cover,  and  then  bent 
eagerly  forward  to  look  at  its  contents  —  she  shrieked  and  fell  into  *h» 
arms  of  Laura,  a  skeleton  met  her  eye, 

"  With  here  and  there  a  pearl,  an  emerald  stone, 
A  golden  clasp,  clasping  a  shred  of  gold." 

The  lef  end  of  the  unfortunate  lady  of  the  portrait  was  indeed  true  — 
these  were  her  remains.  Beatrice  was  carried  to  her  room,  and  a  month 
passed  before  she  recovered  from  a  fever  occasioned  by  the  fright  and 
excitement  she  experienced  •,  and  never  again  did  she  mingle  in  the  dis 
sipated  circle  of  her  native  city.  These  s(^enes  had  lost  their  charms  — 
for  the  skeleton  and  its  history  continually  presented  themselves  to  her 
mind,  reminding  her,  that  "  in  the  midst  of  life  we  are  in  death,"  and 
warning  her  to  prepare  for  that  change  which  must  occur  in  the  course 
of  our  existence.  After  a  while,  Beatrice  lost  these  gloomy  sensations, 
and  became  cheerful  and  happy  in  the  performance  of  duty,  and  partici- 
pated in  those  innocent  amusements  of  life,  wliich  she  enjoyed  far  better 
than  those  absorbing  pleasures,  which  she  used  to  admire.  The  old  chest 
and  portrait  were  placed  carefully  together,  and  Beatrice  ever  after  wore 
the  wedding  ring  and  tlie  seal  inscribed  with  the  name, "  Ginevra,"  which 
had  been  found  among  the  other  relics  of  the  chest.  She  also  wrote,  for 
the  perusal  of  her  friends,  the  following  stoiy  connected  with  the  picture 
and  its  mouldering  companion. 


GINEVKA. 

"  And  she  indeed  was  beautiful, 
A  creature  to  behold  witli  tronibllnp  'midst  our  joy, 
Lost  ought  unsocn  should  wait  the  vision  from  us, 
Leaving  eurtli  too  dhn  Avitliout  ita  brightness." 

"  The  deep  gold  of  eventide  burned  in  the  Italian  sky,"  and  the  wind, 
passing  through  tlie  orange  groves  and  over  the  terraces  which  surround 
ed  the  palace  of  the  Donuti,  niin;;lod  its  soft,  sweet  siglis  with  the  mur 
muring  of  the  fountains,  which  si)iirkled  in  the  moonbeams,  occjisionall) 
sending  a  shower  of  spray  over  the  waving  foliage  that  shadowed  tliem 
At  a  Avindow,  overlooking  tliis  moon-lit  scene,  stood  Ginevra,  the  onlj 
child  of  Donati,  "  the  joy,  the  pride  of  an  indulgent  father."  Indeed,  hei 
gentleness  and  sportiveness  made  her  loved  by  all,  and 

"  Her  pranlis,  the  favorite  theme  of  every  tongue." 

She  had  seen  but  fifteen  summers,  and  these  had  glided  away  like  • 
fciry  dream,  —  and  then 

"  Her  face  so  lovely,  yet  so  arch,  so  full  of  mirth. 
The  oyerflowlngi  or  an  Innocent  heart. " 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION  8S 

And  there  she  stood,  looking  at  those  old  familiar  scenes,  till  a  teax  glit- 
tered  in  her  dark  eye,  and  a  shade  of  sadness  rested  on  her  fair  brow, 
like  a  cloud  shadowing  her  "  sunny  skies  " ;  —  for,  on  the  morrow,  she 
was  to  part  from  her  childhood's  home,  she  was  "  to  give  her  hand,  with 
her  heart  in  it,"  to  Francesco  Doria,  a  brave  and  handsome  son  of  that 
noble  family,  whose  name  often  occurs  in  the  annals  of  Italy.  Long  did 
Ginevi-a  linger  at  the  window.  "My  only  one."  The  voice  was  her 
father's,  who,  accompanied  by  Francesco,  came  to  seek  her ;  and  there 
they  remained,  looking  out  on  that  lovely  scene ;  and  many  were  the 
joyous  anticipations,  the  bright  hopes,  the  dreams  of  happiness  which 
mingled  in  their  conversation,  while  Francesco  plucked-  the  white  flowers 
from  a  vine  which  hung  across  the  casement,  and  wreathed  them  in 
Ginevra's  long  daa'k  curls.  But  a  neighboring  convent  bell  warned  them 
to  seek  repose,  and  reluctantly  they  parted  to  di-eam  of  the  morrow, 
which  they  fondly  thought  would  bring  with  it  the  reaUzation  of  their 
bright  hopes. 

"  The  mom  is  up  again,  the  de^vy  mom,"  and  sunlight  and  dewdrops 
were  weaving  bright  rainbow  webs  over  shrub  and  flower,  and  the  fresh 
morning  breeze  blew  the  vines  across  the  marble  pillars  of  the  colonnade, 
wliich  echoed  with  the  merry  voices,  —  the  gay  laugh,  and  the  light  step 
of  the  proud  and  beautiful  assemblage,  collected  to  grace  the  wedding  of 
Donati's  lovely  daughter.  And  lovely,  indeed,  did  she  appear  among 
Italy's  fairest  childrerft  Her  di'css  of  rich  green  velvet,  clasped  with 
emeralds,  set  in  gold,  the  pearls  shining  among  her  dark  curls,  added  to 
her  loveliness,  and  made  her  appear  the  star  of  that  bi'ight  company. 
Proudly  and  fondly  her  father  and  husband  watched  her  graceful  form, 
as  she  glided  among  the  gav  throng,  receiving  their  congratulations  aa 
the  bride  of  Francesco  Dona.  Nothing  seemed  wanting  to  complete 
their  happiness.  Mirth  and  festivity,  the  song  and  the  dance,  aU  lent 
then-  attractions  and  added  to  their  feUcity.  Ah !  did  not  that  happy 
father  and  fond  husband  know  that  such  happiness,  is  not  for  earth  '^ 

"  Fear  ye  the  festal  hour; 
Ay,  tremble  when  the  cup  of  joy  o'erflows ! 
Tame  down  the  swelling  heart !    The  bridal  rose 
And  the  rich  myrtle's  flower 
Have  veiled  thee,  Death  I  " 

Gaily  the  hours  passed  by ;  Genevra  was  all  gaiety,  half  wild  with  ex- 
citement. As  she  passed  Francesco,  she  whispered  her  intention  of  hid- 
ing, and  challenged  him  and  her  gay  associates  to  find  her.  Soon  were 
they  all  in  search  of  the  fair  bride,  and  merrily  they  proceeded  through 
the  lofty  halls,  the  dark  closets,  and  secret  apartments  of  that  spacious 
palace,  which  resounded  with  merry  voices  and  laughter.  Long  they 
looked,  but  vainly ;  and,  as  the  shades  of  evening  stole  over  the  scene, 
wearied  and  alarmed,  nearly  all  the  now  dismayed  guests  retired  to 
their  homes,  for  Genevra  was  nowhere  to  be  found.  Donati  and  Fran- 
cesco, half  frantic  continued  the  search,  which  grew  hourly  more  hope- 
less. Week  after  week,  months  passed  away,  but  nothing  was  heard  of 
the  lost  one.  Francesco,  weary  of  that  life  which  was  now  depriifca  of 
all  that  endeared  it  to  earth,  joined  the  army  of  his  countrymen, 
"  And  flung  it  away  in  battle  with  the  Turk." 

Donati  still  lingered  around  that  home,  so  connected  with  the  luemor^ 
rf  her  whom  he  idolized,  who  was  now  lost  to  him  for  ever ; 


86  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITIOJf. 

"  And  long  might  you  have  seen, 
An  old  man  wandering,  as  in  quest  of  something, 
Something  he  could  not  find  —  he  knew  not  what." 

And  where  was  Ginevra  ?  Half  breathless  with  haste,  she  ran  to  an 
old  gallery  in  the  upper  part  of  the  palace,  fancying  her  pursuers  had  al- 
most overtaken  her.  As  she  hastily  glanced  round  the  dimly  lighted 
gallery,  in  search  of  a  hiding  place,  her  eye  rested  on  an  oaken  chest, 
beautifully  carved  and  ornamented  by  a  celebrated  sculptor  of  Venice, 
which  once  held  the  robes  of  a  prince  of  her  illustrious  race.  Quick  as 
thought,  Ginevra  exerted  her  strength  to  raise  the  cover.  The  chest 
easily  held  her  fragile  form.  Trembling  with  joy  and  excitement,  she 
heard  the  loved  and  well-known  tones  of  Francesco's  voice,  who  was  fore- 
most in  pursuing  her ;  when  her  hand,  which  held  the  cover  ajar  to  admit 
the  air,  slipped  and  it  fell,  "  fastening  her  down  for  ever."  The  chest  was 
constructed,  for  greater  security,  with  a  spring,  which  locked  as  it  was 
shut,  and  could  only  be  opened  by  one  outside  touching  a  particular  part 
of  the  curious  workmanship.  But,  before  Francesco  reached  the  gallery, 
the  lovely  and  unfortunate  girl  had  ceased  to  breathe  in  tliat  closely  shut 
chest.  Many  times  they  passed  the  gallery,  but  they  heeded  not  the  hid- 
ing-place of  the  lost  bride :  which,  alas  !  was  destined  to  be  her  grave. 
No  flowers  could  shed  their  perfumes  over  her  grave,  watered  by  the 
tears  of  those  that  loved  her.  Her  fate  was  a  mystery,  and  soon 
her  memory  passed  away,  like  all  the  fleeting. things  of  earth.  And 
Donati,  —  what  had  he  to  live  for  ?  In  the  beautiful  language  of  Mrs 
Hemans,  he  might  have  said, 

"  It  is  enough !  mine  eye  no  more  of  loy  or  splendor  sees  ! 
I  go,  since  earth  its  flower  hath  lost,  "to  join  the  bright  and  fair, 
AJid  call  the  grave  a  lovely  place,  for  thou,  my  child,  art  there." 

Examples  for  practice  may  be  taken  from  any  source  which  the  teachei 
or  the  student  may  select. 


XXV. 

ANAGRAMS. 

An  anagram  is  the  transposition  of  the  letters  of  a  word,  or 
short  sentence,  so  as  to  form  another  word,  or  phnise,  with  a 
different  meaning.  Thus,  the  letters  which  compose  the  word 
stone,  may  be  arranged  so  as  to  form  the  words  tones,  notes. 
or  seton  ;  and,  (taking ^  and  v  as  duplicates  of  i  and  w,)  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  may  be  arranged  so  as  to  form  the 
words  StyXj  Phlegm,  quiz,  frowned  and  hack.* 

*  Pilate's  qtjestion  to  Jesus,  "  Qjiid  en  vtritas?"  (Wliat  is  truth  ?^  has 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION  87 

Examples, 

Astronomers,  Moon-starers. 

Telegraphs,  Great  Helps. 

Gallantries,  All  great  sins, 

Democratical,  Comical  trade. 

Encyclopedia,  A  nice  cold  pie. 

Lawyers,  Sly  ware. 

Misanthrope,  Spare  him  not. 

Monarch,  March  on. 

Old  England,  G<)lden  Land. 

Presbyterian,  Best  in  prayer. 

Punishment,  Nine  Thumps. 

Penitentiary,  Nay,  I  repent  it. 

Radical  Reform,  Rare  mad  frolic. 

Revolution,  To  love  ruin. 

James  Stuart,  A  just  master. 
Charles  James  Stuart,       Claims  Arthur's  Seat. 

Eleanor  Davies,  *  Reveal,  O  Daniel. 
Dame  Eleanor  Davies,     Never  so  mad  a  Ladie. 

!For  exercises  of  practice,  the  student  may  select  his  OAvn  words  or  sen 
tences.  As  it  is  a  mere  literary  amusement,  the  exercise  is  not  considered 
worthy  of  much  attention. 

been  happily  converted  in  an  anagram  to  the  words,  "  Est  vir  qui  adest,'" 
(It  is  the  man  who  is  before  you.) 

Jablonski  welcomed  the  visit  of  Stanislaus,  King  of  Poland,  wich  his  no 
ble  relatives  of  the  house  of  Lescinski,  to  the  annual  examination  of  the 
students  under  his  care,  at  the  gymnasium  of  Lissa,  with  a  number  of  ana- 
grams, all  composed  of  the  letters  in  the  words  Domus  Lescinia.  The 
recitations  closed  with  an  heroic  dance,  in  which  each  youth  carried  a 
shield  inscribed  with  a  legend  of  the  letters.  After  a  new  evolution,  the 
boys  exhibited  the  words  Ades  incolumis  ;  next,  Om,nis  es  hccida ;  next, 
Omne  sis  hocida;  fifthly.  Mane  sidus  loci ;  sixthly,  Sis  colvmina  Dei;  and 
at  the  conclusion,  I scande  solitmi. 

But  a  still  more  remarkable  anagram  than  any  that  has  been  presented, 
will  be  foimd  in  the  Greek  inscription  on  the  Mosque  of  St.  Sophia,  in  Con 
stantinople : 

"  Ni^oy  aio/xfifioLTct  ij.it  fAOvea  o4'V," 

which  present  the  same  words,  whether  read  from  left  to  right,  or  from 
right  to  left. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  was  in  the  habit  of  concealing  his  mathematical  dis 
coveries,  by  depositing  the  principles  in  the  form  of  anagrams ;  by  which 
he- might  afterwards  claim  the  merit  of  the  invention  without  its  being 
stolen  by  others. 

*  This  lady  fancied  herself  a  prophetess,  and  supposed  the  spirit  of 
Daniel  to  be  in  her,  because  this  anagram  could  be  formed  from  her  name. 
Rut  her  anagram  was  faulty,  as  it  contained  an  I  too  much,  and  an  s  too 
Mttle.  She  was  completely  put  down  by  the  anagram  made  from  the  name 
Diwms  Eleanor  Demies,  "  Never  so  mad  a  ladie." 


S«  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

XXVI. 

OF  GRAMMATICAL  PROPRIETY. 

A-though  the  details  of  Grammar  and  grammatical  rule 
are  not  embraced  in  the  plan  of  this  work,  it  will  be  proper 
to  present  some  observations,  by  way  of  review,  with  regard 
to  those  principles  which  are  most  frequently  disregarded  or 
forgotten  by  careless  writers.  Some  remarks  have  already 
been  made  with  regard  to  a  few  of  the  improprieties  which 
are  frequently  observed,  even  in  writers  of  respectability. 
The  considerations  now  to  be  oflfered  are  presented  in  the 
form  of  directions. 

Direction  1st.  In  determining  the  number  of  a  verb,  regard  must 
be  had  to  the  idea  which  is  embraced  in  the  subject  or  nominative.  When- 
ever the  idea  of  plurality  is  conveyed,  whether  it  be  expressed  by  one 
word,  or  one  hundred,  and  however  connected,  and  in  whatever  number 
the  subject  may  be,  whether  singular  or  plural,  all  verbs  relating  to  it 
must  be  made  to  agree,  not  with  the  number  of  the  word  or  words,  but 
with  the  number  of  the  idea  conveyed  by  the  words. 

Direction  2d.  In  the  use  of  pronouns,  the  same  remark  appUes, 
namely,  that  the  number  of  the  pronoun  must  coincide  with  the  idea  con- 
tained in  the  word,  or  words,  to  which  the  pronoun  relates.  If  it  imply 
unity,  the  pronoun  must  be  singular ;  if  it  convey  plurality,  the  pronoun 
must  be  plural.  These  directions  vnW  be  better  undei-stood  by  ajt,  example 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  Each  of  them,  in  their  tui-n,  receive  the  benefits 
to  which  they  are  entitled,"  the  verbs  and  pronouns  are  in  the  wrong  num- 
ber. The  word  each,  although  it  includes  all,  implies  but  one  at  a  tune. 
The  idea,  therefore,  is  the  idea  of  unity,  and  the  verb  and  pronoun  should 
ue  singular ,  thus,  "  Each  of  them  in  his  turn  receives  the  benefit  to  which 
he  is  entitled." 

The  same  remark  may  be  made  with  regard  to  the  following  sentences: 
"  Etery  person,  Avhatever  be  their  (his)  station,  is  bound  by  the  duties  of 
morality."  "  The  wheel  killed  another  man,  who  is  the  sixth  that  havf 
(has)  lost  their  (his)  lives  (life)  by  these  means."  "  I  do  not  think  that  any 
one  should  incur  censcre  for  being  tender  of  their  (his)  reputation." 

Direction  3d.  In  the  use  of  verbs  and  words  which  express  time, 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  proper  tense  be  employed  to  express  the 
time  that  is  intended.  Perhaps  there  is  no  rule  more  frequently  violated 
than  this,  even  by  good  writers ;  but  youn^  Avriters  are  very  prone  to  the 
error.  Thus,  the  author  of  the  Waverley  Novels  has  the  following  sen- 
tence :  * 

*  See  Parker's  lamo  edition  of  the  Waverley  Novels,  Vol.  XIII.  p.  14. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  89 

•' '  Description,'  he  said, '  was  (is)  to  the  author  of  a  romance,  exactly 
what  drawing  and  tinting  tuere  (are)  to  a  painter;  words  w^e  (are)  his 
colors,  and,  if  properly  employed,  they  coiud  (can)  not  fail  to  place  the 
scene  whicli  he  wished  (wishes)  to  conjure  up,  as  effectually  before  the 
mind's  eye,  as  the  tablet  or  canvass  presents  it  to  the  bodily  organ.  The 
same  rules,'  he  continued,  '  applied  (apply)  to  both,  and  an  exuberance  of 
dialogue  in  the  former  case,  was  (is)  a  verbose  and  laborious  mode  of  com 
position,  which  went  (goes)  to  confound  the  proper  art  of  the  drama,  a 
widely  different  species  of  composition,  of  which  dialogue  was  (is)  the  very 
essence;  because  all,  excepting  the  language  to  be  made  use  of,  was  (is) 
presented  to  the  eye  by  the  dresses,  and  persons,  and  actions,  of  the  per 
rormers  upon  the  stage.'  " 

The  author  was  misled  throughout  in  the  tenses  of  the  verbs  in  this 
extract,  by  the  tense  of  the  verb  said,  with  which  he  introduces  it. 

Direction  4th.  Whenever  several  verbs  belonging  to  one  common 
subject  occur  in  a  sentence,  the  subject  or  nominative  must  be  repeated 
whenever  there  is  a  change  in  the  mood,  tense,  or  form  of  the  verb. 

DiKECTiON  5th.  In  the  use  of  the  comparative  and  superlative  de 
grees  of  the  adjective,  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  when  two  things  or  per 
sons  only  are  compared,  the  comparative  degree,  and  not  the  superlative, 
should  be  used.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  Catharine  and  Mary  are  both 
well  attired ;  but,  in  their  appearance,  (IJatharine  is  the  neatest,  Mary  the 
most  showy,"  the  superlative  degree  of  the  adjective  is  improperly  applied. 
As  there  are  but  two  persons  spoken  of,  the  adjectives  should  be  in  tho 
comparative  degree  namely  neater  and  more  shorn/. 

Direction  Gth.    Neuter  and  intransitive  verbs  should  never  be  used 

in  the  passive  form.  Such  expressions  as  vxis  gone,  is  grown,  is  fallen,  is 
come,*  may  be  relied  on,  &c.,  although  used  by  some  good  wi-iters,  ai-e  ob 
jectionable. 


*  Although  this  form  of  expression  is  sanctioned  by  Murray,  Lowth,  and 
other  good  authorities,  yet  reason  and  analogy  will  not  justify  us  in  assent 
ing  to  their  decision ;  for,  besides  the  awkwardness  of  the  expression,  it  is 
objectionable  as  being  an  unnecessary  anomaly.  But  the  author  has  been 
influenced  in  his  rejection  of  such  expressions,  by  the  ver\'-  sensible  and 
conclusive  remarks  of  Mr.  Pickboum,  in  a  very  learned  work,  entitled  "  A 
Dissertation  on  the  English  Verb,"  published  in  London,  1789.  Dr.  Priest- 
ley, in  his  "  Grammar,"  page  127,  says,  "It  seems  not  to  have  been  deter- 
mined by  the  English  grammarians,  whether  the  passive  participles  of 
verbs  neuter  require  the  auxiUary  am,  or  ha/ve  before  them.  The  French,  in 
this  case,  confine  themselves  strictly  to  the  former."  "  This  remark,"  says 
Mr.  Pickbourn,  "  concerning  the  manner  of  usmg  the  participles  of  French 
neuter  verbs  is  certainly  not  well  founded ;  for  m^ost  of  them  are  conjugated 
with  avoir,  to  have." 

Such  expressions  as  the  following  have  recently  become  very  common, 
not  only  in  the  periodical  publications  of  the  day,  but  are  likewise  finding 
favor  with  popular  writers  ;  as,  "  The  house  is  being  built:''  "  The  street 
is  being  paved."  "  The  actions  that  are  now  being  performed,"  &c.  "  The 
patents  are  being  prepared."  The  usage  of  the  best  writers  does  not  sane 
tion  these  expressions ;  and  Mr.  Pickbourn,  in  the  work  just  quoted,  lays 
down  the  following  principle,  which  is  conclusive  upon  the  subject. 
"  Wlienever  the  participle  in  tng  is  joined  by  an  auxiliary  verb  to  a  nomina 
8* 


:K)  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

Direction  7th,  In  the  use  of  irregular  verbs,  a  proper  distinction 
should  be  made  in  the  use  of  the  imi>erfect  tense  and  the  perfect  participle 

He  done  (did)  it  at  my  request:  He  run  (ran)  a  great  risk:  He  has 
mistook  (mistaken)  his  true  interest:  The  cloth  was  wove  (woven)  of  the 
finest  wool :  He  writes  as  the  best  authors  would  have  ivrote  (written)  had 
they  torit  (wi-itten)  on  the  subject :  The  bell  has  been  rang  (rung) :  I 
have  spoke  (spoken)  to  him  upon  the  subject.  These  sentences  are  in 
stances  where  the  proper  distinction  between  the  preterite  and  participh 
has  not  been  preserved. 

Direction  8th.  The  negative  adverb  must  be  followed  by  the  nega 
tive  conjunction :  as,  "  The  work  is  not  capable  of  pleasing  the  under 
standing,  nor  (not  or)  the  imagination."  The  sentence  would  be  im 
proved  by  using  the  conjunctions  in  pairs,  substituting  neither  for  not. 

In  the  following  sentences,  the  conjunction  but  is  improperly  used.  "1 
cannot  deny  but  that  I  was  in  fault."  "  It  cannot  be  doubted  but  that  thi? 
is  a  state  of  positive  gratification,"  &c. 

Direction  9th.  There  must  be  no  ellipsis  of  any  word,  when  sucl 
ellipsis  would  occasion  obscurity.  Thus,  when  we  speak  of  "  the  laws  of 
God  and  man,"  it  is  uncertain  whether  one  or  two  codes  of  laws  are 
meant;  but,  in  the  expression,  "the  laws  of  Grod,  and  the  laws  of  man,* 
the  obscurity  vanishes.  A  nice  distinction  in  sense  is  made  by  the  use  oj 
omission  of  the  articles.  "  A  white  and  red  house,"  means  but  one  house 
but,  "  A  white  and  a  red  house,"  means  two  houses.  In  the  expression 
*'  She  has  a  little  modesty,"  the  meaning  is  positive ;  but,  by  omitting  the 
article,  "  She  has  little  modesty,"  the  meaning  becomes  negative.  The 
position  of  the  article,  also,  frequently  makes  a  great  difference  in  the 
sense,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following  examples :  "  As  delicate  a  littU 
thing ; "  "  As  a  delicate  little  thing." 

Direction  10th.  The  adverb  should  always  be  placed  as  near  as  pos 
Bible  to  the  word  which  it  is  designed  to  qualify.  Its  proper  position  if 
generally  before  adjectives,  after  verbs,  and  frequently  between  the  auxil 
iary  and  the  verb.  The  following  sentence  exhibits  an  instance  of  th< 
improper  location  of  the  adverb :  "  It  had  almost  been  his  daily  custom 
at  a  certain  hour,  to  visit  Admiral  Priestman."  The  adverb  almost  should 
have  been  placed  before  daily. 

Direction  11th.  In  the  use  of  passive  and  neuter  verbs,  cai-e  must 
be  taken  that  the  proper  nominative  is  applied.  That  which  is  the  object 
of  the  active  verb,  must  in  all  Civses  be  the  subject  or  nominative  of  the 
passive  verb.  Thus,  we  say,  with  the  active  verb,  "  They  offered  him 
mercy"  (L  o.  to  him) ;  and,  with  the  passive  verb,  "Mercy  was  offered  to 


tivo  capable  of  the  action,  it  is  taken  actively ;  but,  when  joined  to  one 
incapabJe  of  the  action,  it  becomes  passive.  If  we  say,  Uhe  men  are 
building  a  house,'  the  participle  buildin-g  is  evidently  used  in  an  active 
Bcnse;  because  the  men  are  capable  of  the  action.  But  v/hen  wo  say, 
'The  house  is  building,'  or  'Patents  are  preparing,'  the  participles  Incilding 
and  prcparijig  must  necessarily  be  understootl  in  a  pixssive  sense;  because 
neither  tlio  lionso  nor  the  patents  are  capnVle  of  action."  See  PicX-boiim 
on  tlu  Enght  h  Verb,  pp.  7^i-^0, 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  91 

him  ;  "  not,  "  He  was  oiFered  mercy,"  because  "  mercy,"  and  not  "  he  *  u 
the  thing  which  was  offered.  It  is  better  to  alter  the  expression,  by  sub- 
stituting a  synonyme  with  a  proper  nominative  or  subject,  than  to  intro 
duce  such  confusion  of  language,  as  must  necessarily  result  from  a  changt' 
in  the  positive,  fixed,  and  true  significations  of  words,  or  from  a  useles 
violation  of  grammatical  propriety. 

In  accordance  with  this  direction,  (see,  also,  Direction  6th,) 

instead  of  it  would  be  better  to  soif 

He  was  prevailed  on.  He  was  persuaded. 

He  was  spoken  to.  He  was  addressed. 

She  was  listened  to,  She  was  heard. 

They  were  looked  at.  They  were  seen,  or  viewed. 

It  is  approved  of.  It  is  liked,  or  commended. 

He  was  spoken  of.  He  was  named,  or  mentioned. 

It  is  contended  for.  It  is  maintained,  or  contested. 

It  was  thought  of.  It  was  remembered,  or  conceived. 

He  was  called  on  by  his  friend.  He  was  visited  by  his  friend. 
These    examples    are    commented        These  examples  are  ridiculed  with 

upon  with  much  humor,  much  humor. 

He  was  referred  to  as  an  oracle.  He  was  consulted  as  an  oracle. 

Direction  12th.  All  the  parts  of  a  sentence  should  be  constructed 
in  such  a  manner  that  there  shall  appear  to  be  no  want  of  agreement  or 
connexion  among  them.  Thus,  the  following  sentence,  "  He  was  more 
beloved,  but  not  so  much  admired  as  Cynthio,"  is  inaccurate,  because, 
when  it  is  analyzed,  it  will  be,  "  He  was  more  beloved  as  Cynthio,"  &c.  The 
adverb  more  requires  the  conjunction  than  after  it;  and  the  sentence 
should  be,  "  He  was  more  beloved  than  Cynthio,  but  not  so  much  ad 
mired." 

Again ;  in  the  sentence,  "  If  a  man  have  a  hundred  sheep,  and  one  of 
them  goes  astray,"  &c.,  the  subjunctive  mood,  have,  is  used  after  the  con 
junction  if,  in  the  first  part  of  the  sentence,  and  the  indicative,  goes,  in  the 
second.  Both  of  these  verbs  should  be  in  the  indicative,  or  both  in  the 
subjunctive  mood. 

No  definite  rule  can  be  given,  which  will  enable  the  learner  to  make  the 
parts  of  a  sentence  agree  in  themselves,  and  with  one  another.  They 
should  be  diligently  compared,  and  a  similarity  of  construction  be  carefully 
maintained ;  while  the  learner  will  recollect,  that  no  sentence  can  be  con- 
sidered grammatically  correct,  which  cannot  be  analyzed  or  parsed  by  the 
authorized  rules  of  syntax. 

[Examples  for  practice,  under  these  principles,  may  be  found  in  Packet 
and  Fox's  "  Grammar,"  Part  II.,  or  in  Murray's  "  Exercises."  It  has  not 
been  deemed  expedient  to  insert  them  here.] 


92  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITIOH. 

xxvn. 

ON  THE  SELECTION  OF  WORDS  AND  EXPRESSIONS 

Besides  grammatical  correctness,  the  student  who  aims  at 
being  a  good  speaker  and  a  good  writer  must  pay  attention 
to  the  style,  or  manner  of  expressing  his  ideas.  Rules  relat- 
ing to  this  subject  pertain  to  the  science  of  rhetoric. 

Perspicuity,  (by  which  is  meant  clearness  to  the  mind, 
easiness  to  be  understood,  freedom  from  obscurity  or  ambigu- 
ity) should  be  the  fundamental  quality  of  style ;  and  the  study 
of  perspicuity  and  accuracy  of  expression  requires  attention, 
first,  to  words  and  phrases,  and  secondly,  to  the  constructiop 
of  sentences. 

Of  Words  and  Phrases. 

The  words  and  phrases  employed  in  the  expression  of  our 
ideas  should  have  the  three  properties  caWed  purity,  propriett/y 
and  precision. 

Purity  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words,  and  such  construc- 
tions, as  belong  to  the  idiom  of  the  language  which  we  speak ; 
in  opposition  to  words  and  phrases  that  are  taken  from  oth- 
er languages,  or  that  are  ungrammatical,  obsolete,  newly  coin- 
ed, or  used  without  proper  authority. 

Purity  may  be  violated  in  three  different  ways.  First,  the  words  may 
not  be  English.     This  fault  is  called  a  barbarism. 

Secondly,  the  construction  of  the  word  may  not  be  in  the  English 
idiom.     This  fault  is  called  a  solecism. 

Thirdly,  the  words  and  phrases  may  not  be  employed  to  express  the 
precise  meaning  which  custom  has  affixed  to  them.  Tnis  fault  is  termed 
an  impropriety. 

Propriety  of  language  consists  in  the  selection  of  such 
words  as  the  best  usage  has  appropriated  to  tliose  ideas  which 
we  intend  to  express  by  them ;  in  opposition  to  low  expres- 
sions, and  to  words  and  phrases  which  would  be  less  significant 
of  the  ideas  that  we  mean  to  convey. 

There  are  seven  principal  rules  for  the  preservation  of  propriety. 

1.  Avoid  low  expressions. 

2.  Supply  words  that  are  wanting. 

3.  Be  careful  not  to  use  the  same  word  in  different  senses. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  93 

4.  Avoid  the  injudicious  use  of  technical  terms;  that  fs,  terms  or 
expressions  which  are  used  in  some  art,  occupation,  or  profeesioa. 

5.  Avoid  equivocal,  or  ambiguous  words. 

6.  Avoid  unintelligible  and  inconsistent  words  or  phrases. 

7.  Avoid  all  such  words  and  phrases  as  are  not  adapted  to  flie  ideas 
intended  to  be  communicated. 

Precision  signifies  the  retrenching  of  superfluities  and  the 
pruning  of  the  expression,  so  as  to  exhibit  neither  more  nor 
less  than  an  exact  copy  of  the  person's  idea  who  uses  it.* 

The  words  used  to  express  ideas  may  be  faulty  in  three  respects,  First, 
they  may  not  express  the  idea  which  the  author  intends,  but  some  other 
which  only  resembles  it ;  secondly,  they  may  expi'ess  that  idea,  but  not  fully 
and  completely ;  thirdly,  they  may  express  it,  together  with  something  more 
than  is  intended.  Precision  stands  opposed  to  these  three  faults,  but 
chiefly  to  the  last.  Propriety  implies  a  freedom  from  the  two  former 
faults.  The  words  which  are  used  may  be  proper ;  that  is,  they  may  ex- 
press the  idea  intended,  and  they  may  express  it  fully ;  but  to  be  precise^ 
signifies  that  they  express  that  idea  and  no  more. 

The  great  source  of  a  loose  style  in  opposition  to  precision,  is  the  inju- 
dicious use  of  words  termed  synonymous.  They  are  called  synonymous 
because  they  agree  in  expressing  one  principal  idea ;  but,  for  the  most  part, 
if  not  always,  they  express  it  with  some  diversity  in  the  circimistances.t 

While  we  are  attending  to  precision,  we  must  be  on  our  guard,  lest, 
from  the  desire  of  pruning  too  closely,  we  retrench  all  copiousness.  To 
unite  copiousness  and  precision,  to  be  full  and  easy,  and  at  the  same  time 
correct  and  exact  in  the  choice  of  every  word,  is,  no  doubt,  one  of  the 
highest  and  most  difficult  attainments  in  writing. 


XXVIII. 

OF  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES.  % 

Sentences,  in  general,  should  neither  be  very  long,  noi 
very  short ;    long  ones  require  close  attention  to  make  us 


*  Precision  is  promoted  by  the  omission  of  unnesessary  words  and  phrases ; 
and  is  opposed  to  Tautology,  or  the  repetition  of  the  same  sense  in  different 
words ;  and  to  Pleonasm,  or  the  use  of  superfluous  words. 

t  See  Lesson  XIX  The  student  who  wishes  for  exercises  on  the  sub 
Jects  of  purity,  propriety,  and  precision,  will  find  them  in  Parker  and  Fox's 
Grammar,  Part  III.,  pp.  78-86,  or  in  Murray's  Exercises,  (Alger's  Edition.) 

t  The  substance  of  the  remarks  on  this  subject,  is  taken  from  Blair's 
Rhetoric.  A  great  part  of  the  language,  also,  is  copied  literally  from  that 
work. 


y4  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

clearly  perceive  the  connexion  of  the  several  parts;  and 
short  ones  are  apt  to  break  the  sense,  and  weaken  the  con- 
nexion of  thought.  Yet  occasionally  they  may  both  be  used 
with  force  and  propriety. 

A  train  of  sentences,  constructed  in  the  same  manner,  and  with  the 
same  number  of  members,  should  never  be  allowed  to  succeed  one  anoth- 
er. A  succession  of  either  long  or  short  sentences  should  also  be  avoided ; 
for  the  ear  tires  of  either  of  them  when  too  long  continued.  A  proper 
mixture  of  long  and  short  periods,  and  of  periods  variously  constructed, 
not  only  gratifies  the  ear,  but  imparts  animation  and  force  to  style. 


The  properties 
four  following : 

most  essential  to  a 
1.     Clearness. 

perfect 

sentence, 

are 

the 

2. 
3. 
4. 

Unity. 

Strength. 

Harmony. 

XXIX. 

OF  CLEARNESS. 

The  first  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence  is  clearness.  This 
implies  that  the  sentence  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  pre- 
sent the  meaning  intelligibly  to  the  mind,  and  without  am- 
biguity. 

The  faults  in  writing  most  destructive  to  clearness  are  two, 
namely :  a  wrong  choice  of  words,  or  a  wrong  collocation  of 
them. 

"  From  the  nature  of  our  language,"  says  Dr.  Blair,  "  a  capital  rule  in 
(he  arrangement  of  our  sentences  is,  that  words  or  members  most  nearly 
related  should  be  placed  a.s  near  to  each  other  as  possible,  that  tlieir  mu- 
tual relation  may  clearly  appear.  This  rule  is  frequently  neglected,  even 
by  good  >vriters.    Thus,  Mr.  Addison  says, 

"  By  greatness,  I  do  not  only  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object,  but  the 
largeness  of  a  whole  view." 

Here  the  place  of  the  adverb  only  makes  it  Umit  the  verb  mean  I  do 
act  only  mean.    The  question  may  then  be  asked.  "  What  does  h«  more 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  ^* 

inan  mean  ?  "  Had  it  been  placed  after  bulk^  still  it  would  have  been 
wi-ong,  for  it  might  then  be  asked,  "  What  is  meant  beside  the  bulk  ?  "  la 
it  the  color,  or  any  other  property  ?  Its  proper  place  is  after  the  word 
ibject. 

"  By  greatness,  I  do  not  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object  only." 

For  then,  when  it  is  asked  —  What  does  he  mean  more  than  the  bulk  of 
X  single  object  ?  the  answer  comes  out  precisely  as  the  author  intends, 
*  the  largeness  of  a  whole  view." 

This  extract  shows  the  importance  of  giving  the  right  position  to 

idverbs  and  other  qualifpng  words.     Particular  attention  must  be  given 

liso  to  the  place  of  the  pronouns  wlio^  which,  what,  whose,  &c.,  and  of  all 

.hose  particles  which  express  the  connexion  of  the  parts  of  speech.    The 

allowing  sentence  is  faulty  in  this  respect. 

"  It  is  folly  to  pretend  to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of  life,  by 
neaping  up  treasures,  which  nothing  can  protect  us  against,  but  the  good 
Drovidence  of  our  Heavenly  Father." 

Which,  as  it  here  stands,  grammatically  refers  to  the  immediately  pre 
ceding  noun,  which  is  treasures,  and  this  would  convert  the  whole  period 
into  nonsense.    The  sentence  should  have  been  constructed  thus  : 

"It  is  folly  to  pretend,  by  heaping  up  treasures,  to  arm  ourselves  against 
tne  accidents  of  life,  agamst  which  nothing  can  protect  us  but  the  good 
'jrovidence  of  our  Heavenly  Father." 


XXX. 


UNITY. 

The  unity  of  a  sentence  implies  its  oneness.  The  sentence 
may  consist  of  parts ;  but  these  parts  must  be  so  closely 
bound  together  as  to  make  an  impression  of  one  object  only 
upon  the  mind. 

There  is  generally  in  every  sentence  some  person  or  thing  which  is  the 
i^oveming  word.  This  should  be  continued  so  if  possible  from  the  begin 
ning  to  the  end. 

Another  direction  or  rule  to  preserve  the  unity  of  a  sentence  may  be 
thus  stated :  Never  crowd  into  one  sentence  ideas  which  have  so  little 
connexion  that  they  might  well  be  divided  into  two  or  more  sentences 
It  is  the  safer  extreme  to  err  rather  by  too  many  short  sentences,  than  by 
one  that  is  overloaded  or  confused. 

A  third  rule  for  preserving  the  unity  of  a  sentence  is,  keep  clear  of  pa- 
rentheses in  the  middle  of  it. 


96  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

In  general  their  effect  is  extremely  bad,  being  a  perplexed  method  of 
disposing  of  some  thought,  which  a  vmter  has  not  art  enough  to  introduce 
in  its  proper  place. 

The  fourth  rule  for  the  unity  of  a  sentence  is,  bring  it  to  a  full  and 
perfect  close. 

In  conformity  with  the  first  rule  stated  above,  it  may  be  observed,  that 
if  thijre  are  a  number  of  nominatives,  or  subjects  which  cannot  be  con- 
nected by  a  conjunction,  or  thro\\Ti  into  some  other  case  or  form,  the 
sentence  must  be  divided,  and  the  parts  constructed  in  independent 
ientences. 

To  show  the  manner  in  which  the  rules  now  stated  should  be  appliod, 
the  following  extract  is  presented  from  "  The  Quarterly  Review." 

"  The  youth  who  had  found  the  cavern,  and  had  kept  the  secret  to  him 
self,  loved  this  damsel ;  he  told  her  the  danger  in  time,  and  persuaded  hei 
to  trust  herself  to  him."  In  this  sentence  there  is  perfect  unity.  The 
word  yotUh  is  the  governing  word,  and  the  pronoun  he,  its  representative, 
to  prevent  tautology,  is  substituted,  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  the  conjunc- 
tion and.  But  the  writer  continues,  "  They  got  into  a  canoe  ;  the  place  of 
her  retreat  was  described  to  her  on  the  way  to  it,  —  these  women  s\dra.  like 
mermaids,  —  she  dived  after  him,  and  rose  in  the  cavern;  in  the  widest 
part  it  is  about  fifty  feet,  and  its  medium  height  is  guessed  at  the  same,  the 
roof  hung  with  stalactites." 

Here,  every  one  of  the  rules  of  unity  is  violated.  The  nominative  is 
changed  six  different  times.  Ideas  having  no  connexion  with  each  other, 
namely :  Their  getting  into  a  canoe,  —  the  description  of  the  place  of  her 
retreat, —  the  swimming  of  the  women,  —  her  di\ang  and  rising  in  the 
cavern,  —  the  dimensions  of  the  cave,  and  the  ornaments  of  its  roof,  are 
all  crowded  into  one  sentence.  The  expression,  "  These  women  swim 
like  mermaids,"  is  properly  a  parenthesis,  occurring  in  the  middle  of  the 
sentence ;  and  the  clause,  "  the  roof  hung  with  stalactites,"  does  not  bring 
the  sentence  to  a  full  and  perfect  close.  The  same  ideas  intended  to  be 
conveyed,  may  be  expressed  as  follows,  without  violating  either  of  the  laws 
of  unity. 

"  As  they  got  into  a  canoe,  to  prr>csed  to  the  covsm,  the  place  of  her 
retreat  was  described  to  her.  Like  the  r«»?t  vi  her  countrj'women,  she 
could  swim  like  a  mermaid,  and  accordinglv  diving  after  him,  she  rose  in 
the  cavern  ;  a  spacions  apartment  of  about  fifty  feet  in  each  of  its  dimen 
sions,  with  a  roof  beautifully  adorned  with  stalactites." 

The  unity  of  a  sentence  may  sometimes  be  preserved  by  the  use  of  the 
participle  instead  of  the  verb.  Thus :  "  The  stove  stands  on  a  platform 
which  is  raised  six  inches  and  extends  the  whole  length  of  tlie  room." 
Tlu?  sentence  is  better  expressed  thus :  "  The  stove  stands  on  a  platform. 
Mix  nches  in  height,  and  extending  the  whole  length  of  tlie  room." 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  97 

XXXI. 

OF  THE  STRENGTH  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

The  third  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence  is  strength. 

By  this  is  meant  such  a  disposition  of  the  several  words 

and  members  as  will  exhibit  the  sense  to  the  best  advantage ; 

as  will  render  the  impression  which  the  period  is  intended  to 

make,  most  full  and  complete,  and  give  every  word,  and  mem 

her  its  due  weight  and  force. 

To  the  production  of  this  effect,  perspicuity  and  unity  are  absolutely 
necessary ;  but  more  is  requisite.  For,  a  sentence  may  be  clear ;  it  may 
also  be  compact,  or  have  the  requisite  unity ;  and  yet,  by  some  unfavora 
ble  circumstance  in  the  structure,  it  may  fail  in  that  strength  or  liveliness 
of  impression,  which  a  more  happy  collocation  would  produce. 

The  Jirst  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a  sentence  is,  take  from  it 
all  redundant  words. 

Thus  it  is  better  to  say, 

"  Called  to  the  exercise  of  the  supreme  command,  he  exerted  his  author- 
ity with  moderation,"  &c.,  than  "  Being  called  to  the  exercise,"  &c. 

It  is  a  most  useful  exercise,  on  reviewing  what  we  have  written,  to  con 
tract  that  circuitous  mode  of  expression,  and  to  cut  off  those  useless  ex 
crescences,  which  are  usually  found  in  a  first  draught.  Care  must  be 
taken,  however,  not  to  prune  too  closely.  Some  leaves  must  be  left  to 
shelter  and  adorn  the  fruit. 

As  sentences  should  be  cleared  of  superfluous  words,  so  also  must  they 
be  of  superfluous  members. 

Thus,  speaking  of  beauty,  one  of  the  most  elegant  writers  in  the  Eng- 
lish Unguage  says, 

"  The  very  first  discovery  of  it  strikes  the  mind  with  inward  joy  and 
^reads  delight  over  the  facvUiesy 

In  the  latter  member  of  this  sentence,  scarcely  anything  is  added  to 
what  was  expressed  in  the  first. 

The  second  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a  sentence  is,  pay  partic- 
ular attention  to  the  use  of  copulatives,  relatives,  and  particles  employed 
for  transition  and  connexion. 

The  separation  of  a  preposition  from  the  noun  which  it  governs,  is  to 
be  avoided.  ~  Thus, 

Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from^  yet  it  may  often  be  accom 
panied  by,  the  advantages  of  virtue." 

It  wonld  be  better  to  say. 

0 


iJ8  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMFOSITION. 

"  Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from  the  advantages  of  fortune  in 
may  often  be  accompanied  by  them."  Or,  '*  Though  virtue  may  often  be 
accompanied  by  the  advantages  of  fortune,  it  borrows  no  assistance  from 
them." 

The  strength  of  a  sentence  is  much  injured  by  an  unnecessary  mnlti 
plication  of  relative  and  demonstrative  participles. 

In  conversation,  and  in  epistolary  writing,  the  relative  pronoun  majr 
he  omitted ;  but  in  compositions  of  a  serious,  or  dignified  kind,  it  should 
always  be  inserted.    Thus  we  may  say,  in  familiar  language, 

"He  brought  the  books  I  requested." 

But  in  dignified  discourse,  the  pronoun  which  should  be  inserted. 

"  He  brought  the  books  which  I  tequested." 

With  regard  to  the  conjunction  and^  it  should  not  be  unnecessarily  re 
peated.  Whenever,  however,  we  wish  objects  to  appear  as  distinct  iroa 
each  other  as  possible,  the  and  may  be  repeated ;  thus, 

"  Such  a  man  may  fall  a  victim  to  power,  but  truth,  and  reason,  and 
liberty ,  would  fall  with  him." 

fN.  B.  In  such  cases,  the  comma  must  precede  each  repetition  of  the 
conjunction  and.] 

The  third  rule  for  promoting  strength  is,  dispose  of  the  principal  word 
or  words  in  that  part  of  the  sentence,  where  they  will  make  the  most 
striking  impression. 

In  general,  the  important  words  are  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  sen- 
tence. Sometimes,  however,  when  we  propose  giving  weight  to  a  sen 
tence,  it  is  useful  to  suspend  the  meaning  a  little,  and  then  bring  it  out 
fully  at  the  close.    Thus, 

"On  whatever  side  we  contemplate  Homer,  what- principally  strikes  us 
18  his  wonderful  invention." 

The  fourth  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a  sentence  is,  make  the 
members  of  them  go  on  rising  in  importance  one  above  another.  This 
kind  of  arrangement  is  called  a  climax,  and  is  ever  regarded  as  a  beauty 
in  composition. 

A  weaker  assertion  should  never  follow  a  stronger  one ;  and  when  a 
sentence  consists  of  two  members,  the  longer  should  in  general  be  the 
concluding  one.  Thus,  the  following  sentence  admits  two  arrangements, 
of  which  the  latter  is  the  better,  for  the  reasons  stated  above. 

"  We  flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief  that  we  have  forsaken  our  passions 
when  they  have  forsaken  us." 

"  When  our  passions  have  forsaken  us,  we  flatter  ourselves  with  the  be* 
licl  that  we  have  forsaken  them." 

The  ffth  rule  for  constructing  sentences  with  strength  is,  avoid  con 
eluding  them  with  ar  adverb,  a  preposition,  or  any  insignificant  word. 

Sometimes,  however,  when  words  of  this  kind  arc  particularly  emphat 
ical,  this  rule  may  bo  disregarded ;  as  in  the  foUomng  sentence,  and 
others  like  it  in  which  thev  present  an  antithesis  • 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  99 

"  Id  their  prosperity,  my  friends  shall  never  hear  of  me  •,  in  their  adver. 
»ity,  always.'''' 

But  when  these  inferior  parts  of  speech  are  introduced  as  cuxjumstan 
ces,  or  as  qualifications  of  more  important  words,  they  should  always  be 
disposed  of  in  the  least  conspicuous  parts  of  the  period.  Thus,  it  is  much 
better  to  say, 

"  Avarice  is  a  crime  of  which  wise  men  are  often  guilty,"  than  to  say, 
*  Avarice  is  a  crime  which  wise  men  are  often  guilty  of." 

This  latter  form  is  a  phraseology,  which  all  correct  writers  shun. 
Lastly,  it  may  be  observed,  that  any  phrase  which  expresses  a  circum 
stance  only,  cannot,  without  great  inelegance,  conclude  a  sentence. 

The  sixth  and  last  rule  concerning  the  strength  of  a  sentence  is  this . 
In  the  members  of  it,  where  two  things  are  compared  or  contrasted ; 
where  either  resemblance  or  opposition  is  to  be  expressed ;  some  resem 
blance  in  the  language  and  construction  ought  to  be  observed. 

The  following  passage  beautifully  exemplifies  this  rule : 

"  Homer  was  the  greater  genius :  Virgil  the  better  artist ;  in  the  one  wt 
admire  the  man,  in  the  other  the  work.  Homer  hurries  as  with  a  com 
manding  impetuosity ;  Virgil  leads  us  with  an  attractive  majesty.  Homer 
scatters  with  a  generous  profusion ;  Virgil  bestows  with  a  careful  magnifi- 
cence. Homer,  like  the  Nile,  pours  out  his  riches  with  a  sudden  overflow ; 
Virgil,  like  a  river  in  its  banks,  with  a  constant  stream.  When  we  look  up 
on  their  machines,  Homer  seems  hke  his  own  Jupiter  in  his  terrors,  shaking 
Olympus,  scattering  lightnings,  and  firing  the  heavens.  Virgil,  like  the 
same  power  in  his  benevolence,  counselling  with  the  gods,  laying  plans  foi 
empires,  and  ordering  his  whole  creation." 

Periods  thus  constructed,  when  introduced  with  propriety  and  not  too 
frequently  repeated,  have  a  sensible  beauty.  But  if  such  a  construction 
be  aimed  at  in  every  sentence,  it  betrays  into  a  disagreeable  uniformity, 
and  produces  a  regular  jingle  in  the  period,  which  tii-es  the  ears  and 
plainly  discovers  affectation. 


XXXII. 

OF  THE  HARMONY  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

Sound  is  a  quality  much  inferior  to  sense  ;  yet  it  must  not 
be  disregarded.  Pleasing  ideas,  and  forcible  reasoning,  lose 
much  by  being  communicated  to  the  mind  by  harsh  and  dis- 
agreeable sounds.  For  this  reason,  a  sentence,  besides  the 
qualities  already  enumerated,  ander  the  heads  of  Clearness, 


aOO  aids    to    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Unity,  and  Strength,  should  likewise,  if  possible,  express  the 
quality  of  Harmony. 

The  rules  of  harmony  relate  to  the  choice  of  words ;  their  an-ange 
ment,  the  order  and  disposition  of  the  members,  and  the  cadence  or  close 
of  sentences. 

If  we  would  speak  forcibly  and  eiFectually,  we  must  avoid  the  use  of 
Buch  words,  —  1.  As  arc  composed  of  words  already  compounded,  the 
several  parts  of  which  are  not  easily,  and  therefore  not  closely  united ;  as, 
imsuccessfulncss,  wrongheadedness,  tenderheartedness.  2.  Such  as  have  the 
syllables  which  immediately  follow  the  accented  syllable  crowded  with 
consonants  that  do  not  easily  coalesce ;  as,  questionless.,  chroniclers,  convent 
iclers.  3.  Such  as  have  too  many  syllables  following  the  accented  syl- 
lable ;  as,  primcuily,  cursorily,  summarily,  peremptorinets.  4.  Such  as  have 
a  short  or  unaccented  syllable  repeated,  or  followed  by  another  short  or 
unaccented  syllable  very  much  resembling  it;  as,  holily,  sillily,  lowlUy, 
farriery. 

But  let  the  words  themselves  be  ever  so  well  chosen,  and  well  sounding, 
yet,  if  they  be  ill  disposed,  the  melody  of  the  sentence  is  utterly  lost,  or 
greatly  impaired. 

Though  attention  to  the  words  and  members,  and  the  close 

of  sentences,  must  not  be  neglected,  yet,  in  no  instance  should 
perspicuity,  precision,  or  strength  of  sentiment,  be  sacrificed 
to  sound.  AH  unmeaning  words,  introduced  merely  to  round 
the  period,  or  fill  up  the  melody,  are  great  blemishes  in  writ- 
ing. They  are  childish  and  trivial  ornaments,  by  which  a 
sentence  always  loses  more  in  point  of  weight  than  it  can 
gain  by  such  additions  to  its  sound. 

The  members  of  a  sentence  should  not  be  too  long,  nor  disproportion 
ate  to  each  other.  When  they  have  a  regular  and  proportional  division 
they  are  much  easier  to  the  voice,  are  more  clearly  understood,  and  better 
remembered,  than  when  this  rule  is  not  regarded ;  for  whatever  tires  the 
voice  and  offends  tlic  ear  is  apt  to  mar  the  strength  of  the  expression, 
and  to  degrade  the  sense  of  the  author. 

With  respect  to  the  cadence  or  close  of  a  sentence,  care  should  be  taken 
that  it  be  not  abrupt  nor  unpleasant  The  following  examples  will  be 
sufficient  to  show  the  propriety  of  some  attention  to  this  part  of  the  rule. 

"  Virtue,  dilijjcnce,  and  industry,  joined  with  good  temper  niid  prudence, 
are  prosperous  in  general."  It  woiild  be  bettor  thus:  "virtue,  diligence, 
and  industr}--,  joined  with  good  temper  and  prudence,  have  ever  been  foimd 
She  surest  road  to  prosperity." 

An  author,  speaking  of  the  Trinity,  expresses  liimself  thus : 

"  It  is  a  mysterv  whicli  we  firmly  believe  the  truth  of,  and  humbly  adore 
the  dspth  or."  How  much  better  would  it  liave  been  with  this  transposi 
tion :  "  It  is  a  mystery,  the  truth  of  which  we  firmly  believe,  and  the  deptb 
of  which  we  humbly  adoix)." 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  103 

In  the  harmony  of  periods  two  things  are  to  be  considered,  rirst, 
agreeable  sound  or  modulation  in  general,  without  any  particular  expres- 
sion. Next,  the  sound  so  ordered,  as  to  become  expressive  of  the  sense. 
The  first  is  the  more  common ;  the  second  the  superior  beauty. 

The  beauty  of  musical  construction  depends  upon  the  choice  and  ar- 
rangement  of  words.  Those  words  are  most  pleasing  to  the  ear,  which 
are  composed  of  smooth  and  liquid  sounds,  in  which  there  is  a  proper 
intermixture  of  vowels  and  consonants,  without  too  many  harsh  conso 
nants,  or  too  many  open  vowels  in  succession.  Long  words  are  generally 
more  pleasing  to  the  ear  than  monosyllables ;  and  those  are  the  most 
musical,  which  are  not  wholly  composed  of  long  or  short  syllables,  but 
of  an  intermixture  of  them ;  such  as,  deligJit,  amuse,  velocity,  celerity,  beauti- 
ful, impetuosity.  If  the  words,  however,  which  compose  a  sentence,  be 
ever  so  well  choaen  and  harmonious ;  yet  if  they  be  unskilfully  arranged, 
its  music  is  entirely  lost. 

There  are  two  things  on  which  the  music  of  a  sentence 
principally  depends  ;  these  are,  the  proper  distribution  of  the 
several  members  of  it,  and  the  close  or  cadence  of  the  whole. 

Fkst,  the  distribution  of  the  several  members  should  be  carefully  re- 
garded. Whatever  is  easy  to  the  organs  of  speech,  is  always  grateful  to 
the  ear.  While  a  period  advances,  the  termination  of  each  member  forms 
a  pause  in  tlie  pronunciation  ;  and  these  pauses  should  be  so  distributed, 
as  to  bear  a  certain  musical  proportion  to  each  other. 

The  next  thing  which  demands  attention,  is  the  close  or  cadence  of  the 
period.  The  only  important  rule,  which  can  here  be  given,  is  this,  when 
we  aim  at  dignity  or  elevation,  the  sound  should  increase  to  the  last ;  the 
longest  members  of  the  period,  and  the  fullest  and  most  sonorous  words, 
should  be  reserved  for  the  conclusion. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  little  words  in  the  conclusion  of  a  sentence 
are  as  injurious  to  melody,  as  they  are  inconsistent  with  strength  of  ex 
pression.  A  musical  close  in  our  language  seems  in  general  to  requke 
either  the  last  syllable,  or  the  last  but  one,  to  be  a  long  syllable.  Words 
which  consist  chiefly  of  short  syllables  ;  as,  contrary,  particular,  retrospect, 
seldom  terminate  a  sentence  harmoniously,  unless  a  previous  run  of  long 
syllables  have  rendered  them  pleasing  to  the  ear. 

Sentences  constructed  in  the  same  manner,  with  the  pauses  at  equal 
intervals,  should  never  succeed  each  other.  Short  sentences  must  bo 
blended  with  long  and  swelling  ones,  to  render  discourse  sprightly  as  weU 
as  magnificent. 

There  is,  however,  a  species  of  harmony  of  a  higher  kind 
than  mere  agreeableness  to  the  ear ;  and  that  occurs  when 
the  sound  is  adapted  to  the  sense.  Of  this  there  are  two  de- 
grees. First  the  current  of  sound  suited  to  the  tenor  of  a 
discourse.  Next,  a  peculiar  resemblance  effected  between 
Bome  object,  and  the  sounds  employe.d  in  describing  it.  [aSb/ 
Onomatopoeia.'] 

9* 


i02  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

The  sounds  of  words  may  be  employed  for  representing  three  clamea 
of  objects  5  first,  other  sounds ;  secondly,  motions  ;  and  thirdly,  the  emo- 
tions and  passions  of  the  mind. 

In  most  languages,  the  names  of  many  particular  sounds  are  so  formed 
as  to  bear  some  reseml)lance  to  the  sounds  which  they  signify.  Instances 
of  this  kind  will  be  found  under  the  title  of  Onomatopoeia,  on  page  104. 
The  following  extracts  from  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  present  examples  of 
similar  words,  united  in  sentences  so  happily  arranged,  that  the  sound 
seems  almost  an  echo  to  the  sense.  The  Gist  represents  the  opening  oi 
the  gates  of  Hell : 

"  On  a  sudden  open  fly, 
With  impetuous  recoil,  and  jarring  sounds 
The  infernal  doors,  and  on  then:  hinges  grate 
Harsh  thunder." 

The  second  represents  the  opening  of  the  gates  of  Heayen  . 

"  Heaven  opens  wide 
Her  ever-during  gates,  harmonious  sound 
On  golden  hinges  turning." 

The  sound  of  words,  in  the  second  place,  is  frequently  employed  to 
imitate  motion. 

Long  syllables  naturally  excite  an  idea  of  slow  motion ;  and  a  sueces- 
8ion  of  short  syllables  gives  the  impression  of  quick  motion.  Instances  of 
both  these  wiU  be  found  under  the  title  of  Onomatopoeia,  to  which  refer- 
ence has  just  been  made. 

The  third  set  of  objects,  which  the  sound  of  words  is  capable  of  repre- 
senting, consists  of  emotions  and  passions  of  the  mind.  Thus,  when 
pleasm-e,  joy,  and  agi-eeable  objects,  are  described,  the  language  should 
run  in  smooth,  liquid  and  flowing  words.  The  following  extract  presents  a 
good  example : 

"  But  0  how  altered  was  its  sprightlier  tone 
When  Cheerfulness,  a  nymph  of  healthiest  hue  ; 
Her  bow  across  lier  shoulder  fliuig ; 
Her  buskins  gemmed  with  morning  dew, 
Blew  an  inspiring  air  that  dale  and  thicket  rang! 
The  hunter's  calJ,  to  Fawn  and  Dryad  known. 
The  oak  crowned  sisters,  and  tlieirchaste-eyed  Queen, 
Satyrs  and  sylvan  boys  were  seen 
Peeping  from  forth  tlieir  alleys  green  ; 
Brown  Kxercise  rejoiced  to  hear, 
And  Sport  leaped  iip  and  seized  his  bcechen  spear." 

Melancholy  and  gloomy  subjects  are  naturaHy  connected  with  ^lo>» 
neasure  and' long  words-    Thus : 

"  In  those  deep  solitudes  ai  .d  awful  cells 
Where  heaveidy  pensive  contemplation  dwells,"  &0. 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  103 

Through  glades  and  glooms  the  mingled  measure  stole.  * 
Exercises. 
The  student  may  correct  the  following  sentences : 

Want  of  Unity. 

The  successor  of  Henry  the  Second  was  his  son  Francis  the  Second,  the 
first  husband  of  Mary,  afterwards  Queen  of  Scots,  who  died  after  a  reign 
of  one  year,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Charles  the  Ninth,  then  a 
boy  only  ten  years  old,  who  had  for  his  guardian  Catharine  de  Medicis 
ftn  ambitious  and  unprincipled  woman. 

Wamt  of  Purity. 

The  gardens  were  void  of  simplicity  and  elegance,  and  exhibited  much 
ihat  was  glaring  and  bizarre. 

Want  of  Propriety. 

He  was  very  dexterous  in  smelling  out  the  views  and  designs  of  others. 
The  pretenders  to  polish  and  refine  the  English  language  have  chiefly 
multiplied  abuses  and  absurdities. 

WcuiU  of  Precision. 

There  can  be  no  regularity  or  order  in  the  life  and  conduct  of  that 
man  who  does  not  give  and  allot  a  due  share  of  his  time  to  retLreraent 
and  reflection. 

Wont  of  Clearness. 

There  is  a  cavern  in  the  island  of  Hoonga  which  can  only  be  entered 
by  diving  into  the  sea. 

Want  of  Strength. 

The  combatants  encountered  each  other  with  such  rage,  that,  being 
3ager  only  to  assail,  and  thoughtless  of  making  any  defence,  they  both 
fell  dead  upon  the  field  together. 

WaM  of  Hamumy. 

By  the  means  of  society,  our  wants  come  to  be  supplied,  and  our  lives 
ire  rendered  comfortable,  as  weU  as  our  capacities  enlarged,  and  our  vir 
luous  affections  caJled  forth  into  their  proper  exercise,  t 


*  The  teacher  or  student  who  wishes  for  exercises  under  the  heads  of 
Clearness,  Unity,  Strength,  and  Harmony,  will  find  a  good  coUecticn  of 
them  in  Murrav's  Exercises,  an  appendage  to  his  large  Grammar ;  or  an 
abridgement  of  them  in  Parker  and  Fox's  Grammar,  Part  3d  in  the  ap 
pendix 

t  The  student  who  wishes  a  larger  collection  of  exercises  under  the  heads 
Bbovem«ntioned,  will  find  th.em  in  Parker  and  Fox's  Grammar.  Part  3d. 


104  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITIOW. 

xxxin. 

SOUND  ADAPTED  TO  THE  SENSE. 

"  'T  Is  not  enough  no  harshness  gives  ofTence, 
The  sound  must  seem  an  echo  of  the  sense." 

ONOMATOPCEIA. 

Onomatopoeia,  or  Onomatopy,  consists  in  the  formation  of 
words  in  such  a  manner  that  the  sound  shall  imitate  the  sense. 
Thus  the  words  buzz,  crackle,  crash,  flow,  rattle,  roar,  hiss, 
whistle,  are  evidently  formed  to  imitate  the  sounds  themselves. 
Sometimes  the  word  expressing  an  object  is  formed  to  imitate 
the  sound  produced  by  that  object;  as,  wave,  cuckoo,  whip- 
poorwill,  v)hisper,  hum. 

It  is  esteemed  a  great  beauty  in  writing  when  the  words  selected  for 
the  expression  of  an  idea,  convey,  by  their  sound,  some  resemblance  to 
the  subject  which  they  express,  as  in  the  following  lines : 

The  whitewashed  wall,  the  nicely  sanded  floor. 
The  varnished  clock  that  clicked  behind  the  door.  * 

Of  a  similar  character,  and  nearly  of  equal  merit,  are  those  sentences 
or  expressions  which  in  any  respect  imitate  or  represent  the  sense  which 
they  are  employed  to  express.  Thus  Gray,  in  his  Elegy,  beautifully  ex- 
presses the  reluctant  feeling  to  which  he  alludes  in  the  last  verse  of  the 
following  stanza : 

"  For  who,  to  dumb  forgetfulness  a  prey, 
This  pleasing  anxious  being  e'er  resigned, 
Left  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerful  day, 
Nor  cast  one  loyi^ing,  livgerivg  look  behind !  " 

And  Pope,  in  his  "Essays  on  Criticism,"  in  a  manner,  though  different, 
yet  scarcely  less  expressive,  gives  a  verbal  representation  of  his  idea,  by 
the  selection  of  his  terms,  in  the  following  lines  : 

"  These,  equal  syllables  alone  require, 
Though  oft  the  ear  the  opejt  vowels  tire, 

*  These  lines  will  not  fail  to  recall  to  the  memory  of  the  classical  stu 
dent  those  peculiarly  graphic  lines  of  Virgil,  in  one  of  which  he  describes 
the  galloping  of  a  horse : 

"  Quadrupedante  putrem  sonitu  quatit  ungula  campum." 

Old  in  another  the  appearance  of  a  hideous  monster : 

"  Monstrum  horrendum  in  forma  ingens  cui  lumen  ad«mptum." 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  lOb 

While  expletives  their  feeble  aid  do  join, 
And  ten  low  words  oft  creep  in  one  didl  line!'' 

"  A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song, 
Tliat,  nice  a  wounded  snaJce^  drags  its  slow  length  along: 

"  Soft  is  the  strain,  when  Zephyr  gently  blows, 
And  the  smooth  stream  in  smoother  numbers  flows ^ 
But  when  loud  surges  lash  the  sounding  shore, 
The  hoarse^  rough  verse  should  like  the  torrent  roar. 
When  Ajax  strives  some  rock's  vast  weight  to  throw, 
The  line  too  labors,  and  the  words  move  slow. 
Not  so  when  swift  Camilla  scours  the  plain, 
Flies  o'er  the  unbending  com,  and  skims  along  the  main." 

As  an  exercise  in  Onomatopoeia,  the  student  may  select  such  weds 
as  he  can  recall  in  which  the  sound  bears  a  resemblance  to  the  significa- 
tion. 


xxxrv. 

DEFIOTTION,  AND  DISTINCTION  OR  DITTERENCE 

The  object  of  this  exercise  is  to  accustom  the  student  to  ac- 
quire clear  ideas  of  things,  and  to  perceive  distinctions  and 
differences  wherever  they  exist.  Clear  ideas  of  a  subject 
must  be  acquired  before  any  thing  can  be  correctly  said  or 
written  upon  it. 

A  definition,  as  described  by  logicians,  consists  of  two  parts,  which  they 
call  the  genus  and  the  difference.  The  genus  is  the  name  of  the  class  io 
which  the  object  belongs.  The  difference  is  the  property  or  properties 
by  which  the  individual  thing  to  be  defined  is  distinguished  from  other 
individuals  of  the  same  class.  Thus,  if  a  definition  is  required  of  the 
word  justice^  we  may  commence  by  saying, "  Justice  is  that  virtue  which 
induces  us  to  give  every  one  his  due."  Here,  virtue  is  the  class  to  which 
the  object  belongs ;  but  this  part  of  the  definition  may  be  applied  to  hon- 
esty ^  another  quality  of  the  same  class,  as  well  as  to  justice ;  for  "  Honesty 
is  also  a  virtue  which  induces  us  to  give  every  one  his  due."  Something 
more,  therefore,  must  be  added  to  our  definition,  by  which  justice  may  be 
distinguished  from  honesty^  and  this  something  more,  in  whatever  form  it 
may  be  presented,  will  be  the  difference  which  excludes  honesty  from  the 
•ame  definition. 


106  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Exansple* 

JUSTICE. 

Justice  is  that  virtue  which  induces  us  to  give  to  every  one 
his  due.  It  requires  us  not  only  to  render  every  article  of 
property  to  its  right  owner,  but  also  to  esteem  every  one  ac 
cording  to  his  merit,  giving  credit  for  talents  and  virtues 
wherever  they  may  be  possessed,  and  withholding  our  appro- 
bation from  every  fault,  how  great  soever  the  temptation  that 
leads  to  it. 

It  will  easily  be  seen  from  this  definition  in  what  the  difference  lies, 
which  excludes  honesty  from  the  definition.  Honesty,  it  is  true,  requires 
tl.at  we  should  render  to  every  one  his  due.  But  honesty  does  not  neces- 
Biiiily  imply  the  esteeming  of  every  one  according  to  his  merit,  giving 
credit  for  talents  and  virtues,  *  &c. 

A  definition  should  generally  be  an  analysisis  of  the  thing 
defined,  that  is,  it  should  comprise  an  enimieration  of  its  prin- 
cipal qualities  or  attributes. 

JExample  2d. 

A  Swallow. 

1.  A  swallow  is  an  animal.  —  This  definition  is  not  correct,  because  it 
will  apply  also  to  a  horse,  or  a  cow,  or  a  dog,  or  a  cat,  as  well  as  to  a 
swallow. 

2.  A  swallow  is  a  bird.  —  So  also  is  an  eagle,  or  a  goose,  and  therefore 
this  detJnition  is  not  sufficiently  distinct 

3.  A  swallow  is  an  animal  which  has  two  legs. — And  so  is  a  man, 
and  therefore  this  definition  is  not  sufficiently  exclusive. 

4.  A  swallow  is  an  animal  that  has  two  legs,  and  wings.  —  And  so  is  a 
b:U ;  and  therefore  this  definition  is  faulty. 

5.  A  swallow  is  an  animal,  that  has  wings,  feathers,  and  a  hard, 
glossy  bill,  with  short  legs,  a  forked  tail,  and  large  mouth,  and  ex 
cecding  all  other  birds  in  the  untiring  rapidity  of  its  flight  and  evolutions. 
Its  upper  parts  are  steel  blue,  and  the  lower  parts  of  a  light,  chestnut 
color.  It  seeks  the  society  of  man,  and  attaches  its  nest  to  the  rafters  in 
barns. 

This  definition  contains  the  difference^  as  well  as  the  class,  and  may 
therefore  be  considered  as  sufficiently  correct  for  our  present  purpose,  t 

♦  See  Syno7*ymes^  page  40. 

t  See  Parker  and  Fox's  Gramn  ar,  Part  m.,  No.  387, 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  107 

Example  3(L 

Eternal. 

The  term  eternal  is  properly  applied  to  that  only  which  always  Las  ex- 
sted  and  always  will  exist.    It  implies  without  beginning  and  without  end. 

This  definition  excludes  the  application  of  the  term  eternal  from  every 
Jiing  that  ever  had  a  beginning,  as  well  as  from  that  which  will  ever  have 
An  end.  The  circumstance  of  having  no  beginning  is  the  specific  difierence 
Detween  the  terms  eternal  and  infinite,  infinite^  endless,  unceasing,  &c^ 
imply  only  toithout  end. 

After  explaining  the  meaning,  or  giving  the  definition  of 
the  terms  in  this  exercise,  the  student  should  be  required  to 
give  an  instance  of  the  proper  application  of  the  word. 

Exercises, 

Give  a  definition  to  the  following  words,  and  point  out  the  distinction 
or  difference  between  them  and  other  words,  which  in  some  respect 
resemble  them. 


Temperance. 

To  Transpose. 

Amplify 

Equity. 

To  Disregard. 

Composition. 

Synthesis. 

Excellence. 

History. 

Analogy. 

Activity. 

Astrology. 

Comparison. 

To  Disobey. 

Literature. 

Judgment. 

Tautology. 

Science. 

Reasoning. 

Narration. 

Art. 

Description. 

Outline. 

The  distinction  or  difference  between  two  subjects  may 
likewise  be  exhibited  as  in  the  following 

Example. 

Grammar,  rhetoric,  and  logic  are  kindred  branches  of 
science,  but  each  has  its  separate  department  and  specific  ob- 
jects. Rhetoric  teaches  how  to  express  an  idea  in  proper 
words ;  grammar  directs  the  arrangement  and  inflections  of 
the  words;  logic  relates  to  the  truth  or  correctness  of  the 
idea  to  be  expressed.  Grammar  addresses  itself  to  the  un- 
derstanding; rhetoric,  to  the  imagination-;  logic,  to  the  judg- 
ment. Rhetoric  selects  the  materials;  grammar  combines 
them  into  sentences  ;  logic  shows  the  agreement,  or  disagree- 
ment, of  the  sentences  with  one  another.     A  sentence  may 


108  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITIOlf. 

t 

be  grammatically  correct,  but  rhetorically  incorrect,  as  in  the 
following  extract : 

"  To  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles,  and,  by  opposing, 
end  them." 

Here  every  word  is  grammatically  correct ;  but  to  repre- 
sent a  man  clad  in  armor  to  fight  water ^  is  a  mixed  metaphor, 
violating  one  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  rhetoric.  So, 
also,  a  sentence  may  be  both  grammatically  and  rhetorically 
faultless,  while  it  violates  logical  principles.  Thus,  "  All  men 
are  bipeds,  and,  as  birds  are  also  bipeds,  birds  are  to  be  con- 
sidered as  men." 

Mxerdses. 

The  student  may  show  the  distinction  hetvoem  the/oUomng  wordt : 

Quack  and  charlatan. 

Projector,  speculator,  and  economist. 

Bookworms  and  syllable  hvmters. 

Cant,  prosing,  puritanical. 

The  word  libej-al,  as  applied  to  politicians,  theologians,  and  philoso- 
phers ;  1st,  when  assumed  by  themselves ;  2dly,  when  applied  to  them  by 
their  adversaries. 

The  different  senses  in  which  the  word  independence  is 
used,  as  applied  to  nations  and  individuals,  to  a  man's  charac- 
ter, opinions,  and  circumstances,  is  explauied  in  the  following 

JExample. 

When  we  speak  of  a  nation's  independence,  we  mean,  that  it 
is  not  connected  with  any  other  nation,  so  as  to  be  obliged  to 
receive  laws  or  magistrates  from  it,  to  pay  a  revenue  into  its 
treasury,  or  in  any  way  to  submit  to  its  dictates.  When  we 
see  a  nation  whose  laws  are  framed  by  its  own  magistrates, 
whether  elective  or  hereditary,  without  regard  to  the  pleasure 
of  any  other  nation ;  where  the  taxes  are  levied  for  the  sup- 
port of  its  own  interest,  and  for  the  maintenance  of  its  own 
magistrates ;  where  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  consent  of 
another  should  be  obtained,  before  it  is  at  liberty  to  make 
war  upon  a  foreign  state,  or  to  enter  into  alliance  with  any 
foreign  power  that  they  please,  —  to  that  nation  custom  gives 
the  epithet  "  independent." 

Nor  does  the  submission  of  a  people  to  the  will  of  a  despot 
Qontradict  its  claim  to  be  considered  an  independent  nation. 


AIDS   TO    ENaLISH    COMPOSITION.  109 

The  subjects  are,  indeed,  dependent  upon  the  caprice  of  a 
tyrant,  and  he  has  absolute  power  over  their  lives,  property, 
and  political  interest ;  but  this  internal  slavery  does  not  ex- 
clude them  from  being  considered  independent  as  a  nation, 
and  from  taking  a  part,  as  such,  in  the  disputes  of  other  gov- 
ernments, provided  that  their  own  master  is  not  also  subject 
to  some  foreign  power.  A  subject  province  becomes  inde- 
pendjsnt,  when,  finding  itself  strong  enough  for  its  purpose,  it 
throws  off  the  yoke  of  the  ruling  power,  and  declares  itself 
free  ;  and  it  is  recognized  as  such  by  other  nations,  if  it  suc- 
ceeds in  establishing  its  claim,  either  by  arms,  or  the  consent 
of  the  government  to  which  it  was  subject. 

A  man  is  said  to  be  independent  in  his  character,  when  he 
does  not  permit  the  opinion  of  the  world  to  influence  his  ac- 
tions. He  is  independent  in  his  opinions,  when  he  maintains 
them  in  spite  of  ridicule,  or  the  ideas  of  the  rest  of  the  com- 
munity. If  he  conducts  himself  according  to  these  opinions, 
carries  into  action  his  ideas  of  right  and  wrong,  though  they 
be  contrary  to  what  every  one  else  thinks,  he  is  independent 
in  character.  A  man  may  he  so  subservient  to  another,  that 
he  will  disguise  his  own  opinions,  and  uphold  those  of  the 
other.  For  some  benefit  conferred,  or  from  the  expectation 
of  some  advantage,  he  will  stoop  to  flatter  the  notions  of  his 
patron,  pretend  to  guide  all  his  actions  according  to  those 
ideas,  and  even  regulate  his  conduct  by  rules  which  he  knows 
to  be  wrong ;  and  merely  for  the  sake  of  being  permitted  to 
expect  a  slight  favor.  Such  a  man  has  no  claim  to  indepen- 
dence of  character  or  opinions. 

When  a  person  does  not  rely  on  the  profits  of  his  business 
for  subsistence,  but  has  laid  up  or  received  as  an  inheritance 
a  sum  of  money,  the  income  of  which  is  sufficient  for  his 
maintenance,  he  is  considered  independent  in  his  circum- 
stances. 

Independence  is,  in  most  cases,  an  excellent  quality  and 
state ;  but  when  a  man's  independence  of  character  leads  hira 
to  abuse,  and  refuse  to  conform  to,  the  customs  of  his  country, 
because  he  perceives  in  them  something  absurd,  it  makes  hun 
appear  ridiculous. 

10 


110  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMP08ITIOM. 

XXXV. 

ANALOGY. 

Analogy,  as  defined  by  Johnson,  is  a  resemblance  between 
two  things  with  regard  to  some  circumstances  or  effects.  ^ 

Webster  defines  it  thus :  An  agreement  or  likeness  between 
things  in  some  circumstances  or  effects,  when  the  things  are 
otherwise  entirely  different.  Thus,  learning  is  said  to  enlighten 
the  mind,  that  is,  it  is  to  the  mind  what  light  is  to  the  eye. 
enabling  it  to  discover  what  was  hidden  before.  * 

Example. 

Youth  and  morning  resemble  each  other  in  many  particu- 
lars. Youth  is  the  first  part  of  life.  Morning  is  the  first 
part  of  the  day.  Youth  is  the  time  when  preparation  is  to  be 
made  for  the  business  of  life.  In  the  morning,  arrangements 
are  made  for  the  employment  of  the  day.  In  youth,  our 
spirits  are  light,  no  cares  perplex,  no  troubles  annoy  us.  In 
the  morning  the  prospect  is  fair,  no  clouds  arise,  no  tempest 
threatens,  no  commotion  among  the  elements  impends.  In 
youth  we  form  plans  which  the  later  periods  of  life  cannot 
execute ;  and  the  morning,  likewise,  is  often  productive  of 
promises  which  neither  noon  nor  evening  can  perform. 

From  this  example  it  will  be  seen  that  subjects  which  in 
reality  have  in  themselves  no  actual  resemblance,  may  be  so 
contrasted  as  to  present  an  appearance  of  resemblance  in  their 
«;ffects.  Many  of  the  beauties  of  poetry  arise  from  the  poet's 
observing  these  similitudes,  and  expressing  them  in  appi"0- 
priate  language.  Thus  darkness  and  adversity,  comfort  and 
light,  life  and  the  ocean,  evening  and  old  age,  misfortune  and 
a  storm,  a  clergyman  and  a  shepherd,  smiles  and  sunshine, 
tears  and  rain,  a  guilty  conscience  and  a  defenceless  body,  are 
subjects  which  in  themselves  have  no  actual  similitude ;  yet, 
when  contrasted  with  their  effects,  points  of  resemblance  will 

*  When  the  thing  to  which  the  anfilojn^'  is  supposed  happens  to  be  men 
tioned,  analogy  has  after  it  the  prepositions  to  or  with:  when  both  the  thing« 
*re  mentioned  after  analogy,  the  preposition  between  is  used.  —  ^ohnson. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  Ill 

be  readily  seen,  which  show  an  obvious  analogy.  Thus,  also, 
in  the  following  extract  the  poet  in  addressing  the  sun  shows 
an  analogy  between  the  evaporation  of  water,  and  the  flight 
of  a  bird. 

"  Thou  lookest  on  the  waters,  and  they  glow 
And  take  them  wings  and  mount  aloft  in  air,"  &c. 

The  skilful  allusion  to  such  analogies  constitutes  the  highest 
art  of  the  poet,  as  it  forms  also  the  most  pleasing  beauty  of 
poetry.  Indeed,  without  such  allusions,  poetry  loses  all  of  its 
charms,  and  verse  degenerates  into  mere  '  sing-song  J 

It  will  be  a  useful  exercise  for  the  student  to  prepare  listfl 
of  subjects  between  which  an  analogy  may  be  traced. 


XXXVI. 

FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE. 

A  Figure,  in  the  science  of  language,  is  a  departure  from 
the  common  forms  of  words,  from  the  established  rules  of 
syntax,  or  from  the  use  of  words  according  to  their  literal 
signification. 

A  departure  from  the  common  form  of  words  is  called  a  figure 
of  etymology,  or  an  etymological  figure.     \_See  Elision,  S^c."] 

A  departure  from  the  established  rules  of  syntax  is  called  a 
syntactical  figure.     [^See  Enallage,  Hyperhaton,  Pleonasm,  S^c.~\ 

A  departure  from  the  use  of  words  in  their  literal  significa- 
tion is  called  a  figure  of  rhetoric,  or  a  rhetorical  figure.  [/See 
Trope,  Metaphor.'] 

Figurative  language  properly  includes  all  of  these  different 
kinds  of  figures ;  but  the  term  is  sometimes  restricted  to 
rhetorical  figures.* 

*  Holmes's  "  Ehetoric  "  enumerates  a  list  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  figures 
connected  with  the  subjects  of  Logic,  Rhetoric,  and  Grammar.  The  work 
is  remarkable  for  its  quaintness,  and  possesses  some  merit  as  a  vocabulary. 
His  cautions  with  regard  to  the  use  of  figures  are  so  characteristic,  that  thev 
may  afford  some  amusement,  if  not  edification  to  the  student.  The  follow 
ing  is  his  language  with  regard  to  Tropes  and  Figures : 

"  The  faults  of  Tropes  are  nine : 

12  3  4  5 

'♦  Of  tropes  perplext,  harsh,  frequent,  swoll'n,  fetched  far, 

6  7  8  9 

111  representii  g,  forced,  low,  lewd,  beware." 


112  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


Many  words  that  are  used  in  common  discouise  have  two  significations 
or  rather  significations  of  two  diflferent  kinds ;  namely,  a  literal  and  a 
figurative  signification. 

A  woid  is  said  to  be  used  literally  or  to  have  its  literal  signification 
when  it  is  used  in  a  manner,  which  is  authorized  by  the  general  consent 
of  those  who  speak  and  write  with  correctness  the  language  in  wliich  it  is 
found. 

A  word  is  used  figuratively,  when  though  it  retains  its  usual  significa- 
tion it  is  applied  in  a  manner  different  from  its  common  application. 
Thus  when  we  speak  of  the  head  of  an  animal^  we  use  the  word  head  in  its 
literal  signification  as  implying  that  part  of  the  body  which  contains  the 
eyes,  nose,  mouth,  ears,  &c.  But  when  we  speak  of  the  liead  of  a  class, 
or  of  a  division  of  an  army,  or  any  thing  without  life,  we  recall  to  mind 
the  analogy  or  resemblance  between  two  objects,  separately  considering 
the  highest  or  most  prominent  part  of  each,  and  apply  the  name  of  that 
part  in  tlie  one,  to  the  similar  part  in  the  other.  In  this  manner  the 
word  is  turned  from  its  literal  meaning  to  a  figurative  signification,  and 
this  turning  of  the  word  receives  the  rhetorical  name  of  a  trope ;  a  deriva- 
tion from  a  Greek  word,  which  signifies  a  turning.  So  also,  "  The  daxon^^ 
5)roperly  means  the  earliest  part  of  the  morning,  or  of  the  day ;  and  "  tivi- 
ight "  expresses  the  close  or  latter  part  of  day.  But,  by  a  rhetorical  figure, 
these  words  are  used  to  express  the  earliest  and  latest  parts  of  other  sub- 
iects.  Thus,  "  the  daivn  of  bliss,"  expresses  the  commencement  of  hap- 
piness or  bliss ;  and,  " the  twilight  of  our  woes"  is  used  to  signify  the 
close  or  termination  of  sorrow.  "  The  morning  of  our  joy,"  implies  the 
earliest  period  of  our  enjoyment.  "  The  eve  of  his  departure,  implies 
the  latest  point  of  time,  previous  to  his  departure. 

The  use  of  figures,  or  of  figurative  language,  is,  — 

1.  They  render  the  language  copious. 

2.  The  richness  of  language  is  tlaereby  increased. 

3.  They  increase  the  power  and  expressiveness  of  language. 

4.  They  impart  animation  to  style.* 

There  is  another  class  of  figures  styled  metaphors^  which  sc 
nearly  resemble  tropes,  that  the  difference  cannot  always  be 
easily  described. 

The  literal  meaning  of  the  word  metaphor  is  a  transferring  from  one 
subject  to  another.    As  used  in  rhetoric,  it  implies  a  transferring  of  the 


"  And  the  faults  of  figures  are  six : 

13  S 

"  Figures  unnatural,  senseless,  too  fine  spun, 
4  6  6 

Over  adorned,  affected,  copious,  shun."  (!!!) 

"  Rhetoric  made  Easy,  by  John  Holmes,  London,  1755." 

♦  The  student  who  would  see  a  beautiful  illustration  of  this  subject,  if 
referred  to  Newman's  Rhetoric,  chap.  3d 


AIDS    TO     ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  113 

application  of  a  word,  in  its  literal  meaning,  from  one  object,  or  class  of 
objects,  to  another,  founded  upon  some  similarity,  analogy,  or  resem- 
blance.* 

A  metaphor  is  a  simile  or  comparison  expressed  in  one 
■vrord.  Thus:  The  soldiers  were  lions  in  the  combat;  The 
soldiers  fought  like  lions.     \_See  Comparison.'] 

A  trope  is  the  mere  change,  or  turning,  of  a  word  from  its  original  sig- 
nification. Hence,  if  the  word  be  changed,  the  figure  is  destroyed.  Thus, 
when  we  say,  The  c^oxi(\s  foretell  rain,  we  have  a  trope  in  the  vfovdi  foreteU. 
If  the  sentence  be  read,  The  clouds  foreshow  rain,  the  figure  disappears. 

The  following  examples  will  clearly  illustrate  the  difference 
between  plain  and  figurative  language : 

Examples. 

Figurative.  She  had  been  the  pupil  of  the  village  pastor, 
the  favorite  lamb  of  his  little  flock. 

Plain.  She  had  been  the  pupil  of  the  village  clergyman^ 
the  favorite  child  of  his  small  congregation. 

Figurative.  Man !  thou  pendulum  between  a  smile  and 
tear. 

Plain.  Man !  thou  who  art  always  placed  between  happi- 
ness and  misery,  but  never  wholly  enjoying  the  one,  nor  to- 
tally afflicted  with  the  other. 

Figurative.  He  found  the  tide  of  wealth  flowing  merely  in 
the  channels  of  traffic ;  he  has  diverted  from  it  invigorating 
rills  to  refresh  the  garden  of  literature. 

Plain.  He  saw  that  men  of  wealth  were  employing  their 
riches  only  in  the  business  of  commerce.  He  set  the  example 
of  appropriating  a  portion  of  wealth  to  the  increase  and  dif- 
fusion of  knowledge. 

Figurative.  A  stone,  perhaps,  may  tell  some  wanderej 
where  we  lie,  when  we  came  here,  and  when  we  went  away ; 
but  even  that  will  soon  refuse  to  bear  us  record :  Time's 
effacing  fingers  wiU  be  busy  on  its  surface,  and  at  length  wear 
it  smooth. 

Plain.  A  itone,  perhaps,  may  be  erected  over  our  graves, 
with  an  inscription  bearing  the  date  of  our  birth,  and  the  day 


*  "  Metaphore  is  an  alteration  of  a  worde,  from  the  proper  and  natural! 
meaning  to  that  which  is  not  proper,  and  yet  agreeth  thereunto  by  some 
iikenesse  that  appeareth  to  be  into  it." — Wilson —  The  Arte  of  Rhetonq/te, 
p.  175. 

10* 


114  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

of  our  death ;  but  even  that  will  not  last  long.  In  the  course 
of  time  the  stone  will  be  mutilated  or  broken,  and  the  inscrip- 
tion be  entirely  destroyed. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  from  these  examples  that  analogy  is 
the  foundation  of  a  large  proportion  of  figurative  language. 
Thus  in  the  first  example,  "  She  had  been  the  pupil  of  the 
village  pastor,  the  favorite  lamb  of  his  little  flock,"  the  analogy 
lies  between  a  clergyman  and  a  shepherd ;  a  congregation  and 
a  flock  of  sheep,  the  little  ones  of  the  congregation  and  the 
young  lambs  of  the  flock. 

It  will  be  found  a  very  useful  exercise  for  the  student  to 
trace  out  the  analogies  thus  presented  by  figurative  language. 
The  following  extracts  are  selected,  in  which  he  may  point 
out  the  subjects  between  which  the  analogy  is  directly  or  in- 
directly implied.  Such  an  exercise  will  open  his  eyes  to  the 
beauties  of  poetry,  and  prepare  him  for  the  imitation  of  those 
beauties.    Perhaps  it  wiU  be  better  that  this  should  be  an  oral 


exercise. 


Extracts. 

The  meek-eyed  mom  appears,  mother  of  dews, 
At  first  faint  gleaming  in  the  dappled  east. 

How  reverend  is  the  face  of  this  tall  pile, 
Whose  ancient  pillars  rear  their  marble  heads, 
To  bear  aloft  its  arched  and  ponderous  roof. 
By  its  own  weight  made  steadfast  and  immovable, 
Looking  tranquillity ! 

Youth  is  not  rich  in  time ;  it  may  be  poor ; 

Part  with  it,  as  with  money,  sparing ;  pay 

No  moment  but  in  purchase  of  its  worth ; 

And  what  its  worth  —  ask  death-beds ;  they  can  tell. 


Enter  this  wild  wood, 


And  view  the  haunts  of  nature.    The  calm  shade 
Shall  bring  a  kindred  calm,  and  the  sweet  breeze, 
That  makes  the  green  leaves  dance,  shall  waft  a  balm 
To  thy  sick  heart. 

Throngs  of  insects  in  the  glade 
Try  their  thin  wings,  and  dance  in  the  warm  beam 
That  waked  them  into  life.    Even  the  green  tree* 
Partake  the  deep  contentment ;  as  they  bend 
To  the  soft  winds,  the  sun  from  the  blue  sky 
Looks  in,  and  sheds  a  blessing  on  the  scene. 

The  breath  of  night's  destiictive  to  the  hue 
Of  every  flower  that  blows. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  116 

So  sa3ring,  her  rash  hand  in  evil  hour 
'  Forth  reaching  to  the  fruit,  she  plucked,  she  ate. 

Earth  felt  the  wound,  and  Nature  from  her  seat, 
Sighing  through  all  her  works,  gave  signs  of  woe 
That  aU  was  lost. 

The  voice  of  thy  brother's  blood  crieth  unto  me  from  the  grotind. 

Thou  'rt  purpling  now,  O  Sun,  the  vines  of  Canaan, 
And  crowning  with  rich  light  the  cedar  tops  of  Lebanon. 

The  tempests  of  fortune. 

The  last  steps  of  day. 
The  storms  of  adversity. 

My  ear  is  pained, 
My  soul  is  sick  with  every  day's  report 
Of  wrong  and  outrage  with  which  earth  is  filled 

The  superb  lotus  was  holding  up  his  cup  to  the  sun.  as  if  for  a  full 
draught  of  his  light. 

Life  is  a  sea  as  fathomless, 
As  wide,  as  terrible,  and  yet  sometimes 
As  calm  and  beautiful.    The  light  of  heaven 
Smiles  on  it,  and  'tis  decked  with  every  hue 
Of  glory  and  of  joy.    Anon,  dark  clouds 
Arise,  contending  winds  of  fate  go  forth. 
And  Hope  sits  weeping  o'er  a  general  wreck. 


XXXVII. 

TRANSLATION  OF  PLAIN  INTO  FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE 

The  following  Examples  present  instances  of  plain  lan- 
guage converted  into  figurative.  This  exercise  will  require 
a  greater  effort  of  imagination  than  the  last ;  but  the  difficulty 
of  the  task  must  not  prevent  an  attempt  at  its  execution. 

Examples.  * 

Plain.  It  was  evening,  and  the  sun  slowly  went  down. 
Figurative.  'T  was  eve :  —  upon  his  chariot  throne 

The  sun  sank  lingering  in  the  west. 
Plain.     Showery  April. 
Figurative.  Tear-dropping  April. 

♦  For  an  example  showing  the  difference  in  the  vivacity  of  style  in  plaia 
and  figurative  language,  see  note  on  pages  118  and  119. 


116  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITIOK. 

Plain.  The  winds  made  the  large  trees  bend. 

Figurative.  The  giant  trees  leaned  back  from  the  encoun 
tering  breeze. 

Plain.  The  thunder  is  echoed  from  the  tops  of  the  moun 
tains. 

Figurative.  From  peak  to  peak  leaps  the  live  thunder. 

Plain.  It  is  again  morning,  a  bright,  fair,  and  pleasant 
morning ;  and  the  clouds  have  all  passed  away. 

Figurative.  The  morn  is  up  again,  the  dewy  morn, 

With  breath  all  incense,  and  with  cheek  all  bloom, 
Laughing  the  clouds  away  with  playful  scorn. 

Plain.  Oldest  of  Lakes. 

Figurative.  Father  of  Lakes. 

Plain.  Yonder  comes  the  bright  sun,  enlight6ning  the  East. 

Figurative.  But  yonder  comes  the  powerful  Eling  of  day, 
Rejoicing  in  the  east. 

Plain.  The  light  dew  —  the  unpleasant  storms. 

Figurative.  The  light-footed  dews :  —  the  surly  storms. 

Plain.  The  earth  is  covered  with  snow,  or 
The  snow  covers  the  earth. 

Figurative.  The  earth  lies  buried  in  a  shroud  of  snow. 

Plain.  Much  rain  has  fallen  from  the  clouds  to-day. 

Figurative.  The  clouds  have  dropped  their  garnered  fulness 
down. 

Plain.  The  fair  morning  makes  the  eastern  skies  look  bright 

Figurative.  The  fair  morning  gilds  the  eastern  skies. 

Plain.  Some  solitary  column  stands  alone,  while  the  others 
have  been  thrown  down. 

Figurative.  Some  solitary  column  mourns  above  its  pros- 
trate brethren. 

Plain.  If  pleasant  looks  will  not  soothe  your  displeasure, 
I  shall  never  attempt  it  with  tears. 

Figurative.  If  sunshine  will  not  dissolve  thy  snow, 
I  shall  never  attempt  it  with  rain. 

Plain.  The  love  that  is  caused  by  excitement  is  soon  de- 
stroyed by  affliction. 

Figurative.  The  love  that  is  ordered  to  bathe  in  wine, 
"Would  be  sure  to  take  cold  in  tears. 

Plain.  Authors  of  modern  date  write  for  money,  not  fbi 
fame. 

Figurative.  'T  is  but  to  snip  his  locks  they  Cmodem  authors^ 
follow  the  golden-haired  Apollo. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  117 

The  conversion  of  plain  into  figurative  language  requires 
&e  exercise  of  considerable  thought,  and  quickness  of  percep- 
tion in  tracing  analogies.  It  is  recommended  to  the  student 
before  he  attempts  an  exercise  of  this  kind,  to  read  with  at- 
tention portions  of  the  works  of  some  distinguished  poet,  with 
special  reference  to  the  figures  he  employs.  Let  him  analyze 
the  expressions,  and  point  out  what  portions  are  figurative,  in 
what  the  figure  consists,  and  on  what  analogy  the  figure  is 
founded.  An  exercise  of  this  kind  will  bring  the  mind  into 
dgorous  action,  and  like  all  exercises  having  that  tendenc^% 
lannot  fail  to  be  highly  beneficial. 


XXXVIII. 

RULES  OF  IklETAPHORS. 

The  following  are  the  rules  laid  down  by  Dr.  Blair,  m 
relation  to  metaphors : 

First.  They  must  be  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  subject ;  neither  too 
numerous,  nor  too  gay,  nor  too  elevated  for  it.  We  must  neither  attempt 
to  force  the  subject,  by  the  use  of  them,  into  a  degree  of  elevation  not 
congruous  to  it ;  nor,  on  the  contrary,  suifer  it  to  fall  below  its  proper 
dignity.  Some  metaphors  would  be  beautiful  in  poetry,  which  would  be 
unnatural  in  prose :  some  are  graceful  in  orations,  which  would  be  highly 
improper  in  historical  composition.  Figures  are  the  dress  of  sentiment ; 
they  should,  consequently,  be  adapted  to  the  ideas  which  they  are  intended 
to  adorn. 

The  second  rule  respects  the  choice  of  objects  whence  metaphors  are  tc 
be  dra^vn.  The  field  for  figurative  language  is  very  wide.  All  nature 
opens  her  stores,  and  allows  us  to  collect  them  without  restraint.  But 
we  must  beware  of  using  such  allusions  as  raise  in  the  mind  mean,  low, 
or  dirty  ideas.  To  render  a  metaphor  perfect,  it  must  entertain  as  well 
as  enlighten.  The  most  pleasing  metaphors  are  derived  from  the  fre- 
quent occurrences  of  art  and  nature,  or  from  the  civil  transactions  and 
customs  of  mankind. 

In  the  third  place,  a  metaphor  should  be  founded  on  a  resemblance,  or 
analogy,  which  is  clear  and  striking,  not  far  fetched,  nor  difficult  to  -be 
discovered.  Harsh  or  forced  metaphors  are  always  displeasing,  because 
they  perplex  the  reader,  and,  instead  of  illustrating  the  thought,  they  ren- 
der it  intricate  and  confused. 

In  the  fourth  place,  we  must  never  jumble  metaphorical  and  plain  lan- 
guage together ;  that  is,  never  construct  a  period,  so  that  part  of  it  must 
Be  understood  metaphorically,  part  literally. 

In  the  Jifth  place,  take  care  not  to  make  two  different  metaphors  meet 
on  the  same  object.  This,  which  is  called  mixed  metaphor,  is  one  of  the 
urrentest  abusPB  of  the  figure.     ShaksjJearG's  expression,  for  example^ 


118  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

"  To  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles,"  makes  a  most  unnatural  medley. 
and  entirely  confounds  the  imagination.* 

In  examining  the  propriety  of  mctapfiors,  it  is  a  good  rule  to  form  a 
picture  of  them,  and  to  consider  how  the  parts  agree,  and  what  kind  of 
figure  the  whole  presents,  when  delineated  with  a  pencil. 

Metaphors,  in  the  sixth  place,  should  not  be  crowded  together  on  the 
same  object.  Though  each  of  them  be  distinct,  yet  if  they  be  heaped  on 
one  another,  they  produce  confusion. 

The  last  rule  concerning  metaphors  is,  they  should  not  be  too  far  pur- 
sued. For,  when  the  resemblance,  which  is  the  foundation  of  the  figure, 
is  long  dwelt  upon,  and  carried  into  all  its  minute  circumstances,  an  aUe- 
gory  is  produced,  instead  of  a  metaphor ;  the  reader  is  wearied,  and  the 
discourse  becomes  obscm-ed.    This  is  termed,  straining  a  metaphor. 


XXXIX. 


PROSOPOPOEIA,  OR  PERSONIFICATION. 

The  literal  meaning  of  prosopopoeia  is,  the  change  of  things  to 
persons.  A  fondness  for  life  and  animated  beings,  in  prefer- 
ence to  inanimate  objects,  is  one  of  the  first  principles  of  lite- 
rary taste.  That  figure,  therefore,  by  which  life  and  action 
are  attributed  to  inanimate  objects,  is  one  of  frequent  occur- 
rence among  the  best  writers  of  prose  and  of  poetry.  To  po- 
etical writers,  especially,  it  is  of  the  greatest  consequence,  as 
constituting  the  very  life  and  soul,  as  it  were,  of  their  num- 
bers.    This  will  easily  be  seen  by  the  following  example : 

"  The  brilliant  son  is  rising  in  the  east." 

How  tame  and  spiritless  is  this  line,  compared  with  the  manner  in 
which  the  same  idea  is  expressed  by  the  poet,  thus 

"But  yonder  comes  the  powerful  King  of  Day, 
Rejoicing  in  the  east"  T 


*  Mr.  Steele,  in  his  "  Prosodta  Rationalis,"  has  rescued  the  Bard  of 
Avon  from  this  inconsistent  metaphor,  by  the  suggestion,  that  it  was 
originally  written,  "  To  take  arms  against  assaU  of  troubles." 

f  This  extract,  from  Thomson's  Seasons,  operates  as  a  temptatioa,  that 
cannot  be  resisted,  to  present  another  from  the  same  page,  which,  as  a  pic 
ture,  remarkable  alike  for  beauty  of  coloring,  dignity  of  appearance,  and 
onblimity  of  conception,  is  scarcely  equalled  m  any  other  language.    That 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  119 

There  are  three  different  degrees  of  this  figure,  saj*  Dr 
Blair,  which  it  is  requisite  to  distinguish  in  order  to  determine 
the  propriety  of  its  use. 

The  first  is,  when  some  of  the  properties  of  Hving  creatures  are  as 
cribed  to  inanimate  objects  ;  the  second,  when  these  inanimate  objects  are 
described  as  acting  like  stick  as  have  life;  and  the  third,  when  they  are  ex- 
hibited as  speaking  to  us,  or  as  listening. 

The  first  and  lowest  degree  of  this  figure,  which  consists  in  ascribing  to 
manimate  objects  some  of  the  qualities  of  living  creatures,  raises  the  style  so 
Httle,  that  the  humblest  discourse  admits  it  without  any  force.  Thus,  a 
raging  storm,  a  deceitful  disease,  a  cruel  disaster  —  are  familiar  expres- 
sions. This,  indeed,  is  so  obscure  a  degree  of  personification,  that  it 
might,  perhaps,  be  propei'ly  classed  with  simple  metaphors,  which  ahnost 
escape  our  observation. 

The  second  degree  of  this  figure  is,  when  we  represent  inanimate  objects 
as  acting  like  those  that  have  Ufe.  Here  we  rise  a  step  higher,  and  the 
personification  becomes  sensible.  According  to  the  nature  of  the  action 
which  we  ascribe  to  those  inanimate  objects,  and  to  the  particularity  with 
which  we  describe  it,  is  the  strength  of  the  figure.  When  pursued  to  a  con- 
siderable length,  it  belongs  only  to  studied  harangues;  when  slightly 
touched,  it  may  be  admitted  into  less  elevated  compositions. 


the  student  may  duly  appreciate  the  skill  of  the  poet,  and  the  magnificence 
of  the  design,  it  is  first  presented  in  plain  language  : 

"  Every  thing  that  grows  depends  on  the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun,  as  it 
is  passing  along  the  ecliptic.  All  mankind  depend  upon  it  for  their  daily 
subsistence.  The  seasons,  the  hours,  the  wind  and  the  rain,  the  dew  and 
the  storm,  influenced  as  they  are  by  the  sun,  are  instrumental  in  producing 
herbs,  fruits,  and  flowers,  during  the  whole  year." 

From  such  a  tame  and  lifeless  recital,  the  poet  has  formed  th#  following 
magnificent  picture,  which  he  holds  up  to  the  sun,  under  the  oamc  (sea 
Ooomatopoeia)  of  "  Parent  of  Seasons :  " 

♦'  The  vegetable  world  is  also  thine 
Parent  of  Seasons  !  who  the  pomp  precede, 
That  waits  thy  throne,  as  through  thy  vast  domain, 
Annual,  along  the  bright  ecliptic  road, 
In  world-rejoicing  state,  it  moves  sublime. 
Meantime  the  expecting  nations,  circled  gay, 
With  all  the  various  tribes  of  foodful  earth, 
Implore  thy  bounty,  or  send  grateful  up 
A  common  hymn ;  while,  round  thy  beaming  oar, 
High  seen,  the  Seasons  lead,  in  sprightly  dance 
Harmonious  knit,  the  rosy-fingered  Hours, 
The  Zephyrs  floating  loose,  the  timely  Rains, 
Of  bloom  ethereal,  the  light-footed  Dews, 
And,  softened  into  joy,  the  surly  Storms. 
These,  in  successive  turn,  with  lavish  hand. 
Shower  every  beauty,  every  fragrance  shower. 
Herbs,  flowers,  and  fruits ;  till,  kindling  at  thy  touch. 
From  land  to  land  is  flushed  the  vernal  year." 


120  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITIOH. 


Exanvple. 

"  The  offended  Law  draws  the  sword  from  its  scabbard,  in  vengeance 
against  the  murderer." 

Here  the  law  is  beautifully  personified,  as  reaching  forth  its  hand  to 
give  us  a  sword  for  putting  a  murderer  to  death. 

In  poetry,  personifications  of  this  kind  are  extremely  frequent,  and  are, 
indeed,  the  lift  and  soul  of  it.  In  the  descriptions  of  a  poet,  who  has  a 
lively  fancv,  every  thing  is  animated.  Homer,  the  father  of  poetry,  is  re- 
markable tor  the  use  of  this  figure.  War,  peace,  darts,  rivers,  every  thing 
in  short,  is  alive  in  his  writings.  The  same  is  true  of  Milton  and  Shak 
■peare.* 

The  third  and  highest  degree  of  this  figure  is  when  inanimate  objects 
are  represented,  not  only  as  feeling  and  acting,  but  as  speaking  to  us ^  or 
listening  when  we  address  them.  This  is  the  boldest  of  all  rhetorical  figiures ' 
it  is  the  style  of  strong  passion  only,  and  thercfoie  should  never  he  at- 
tempted, except  when  the  mind  is  considerably  heated  and  agitated. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  this  kind :  » 

Must  I  leave  thee,  Paradise  ?  thus  leave 
Thee,  native  soil,  these  happy  walks  and  shades, 
Fit  haunts  of  gods  !  where  I  had  hoped  to  spend. 
Quiet,  though  sad,  the  respite  of  that  day 
That  must  be  mortal  to  us  both. 

It  is  to  be  remarked,  with  regard  to  this  degree  of  personification,  ,;ir«, 
that  it  should  never  be  attempted  unless  when  prompted  by  strong  feel- 
ing, and  should  never  be  continued  when  the  feeling  begins  to  subside. 

Secondly.  That  an  object  that  has  not  some  dignity  in  itself,  or  which  is 
incapable  of  making  a  proper  figure  in  the  elevation  to  which  we  raise  it, 
should  never  be  personified.  Thus,  to  address  the  body  of  a  friend  is  not 
at  all  unnatural ;  but  to  address  the  several  parts  of  the  body,  or  tlie 
clothes  which  he  wore,  is  not  compatible  with  the  dignity  of  grave 
composition. 

Examples  of  the  three  degrees  of  personification  for  the  student  to 
designate : 

"With  other  ministrations,  thou,  oh  Nature, 
Healcst  thy  wandering  and  distempered  child. 

Uncomforted  and  friendless  solitude. 

Come,  funeral  flower !  thou  shalt  form  my  nosegay  now. 


♦  No  personification  is  more  striking,  or  introduced  on  a  more  prcper 
oocasion,  than  the  following  of  Milton,  upon  Eve's  eating  the  forbidden 
Jhiit: 

"  So  saying,  lier  rash  hand,  in  evil  hour, 
"  FortJi  reaching  to  the  fruit,  she  plucked,  she  ate  I 
"  Earth  felt  the  wound  ;  and  nature,  fVom  her  seat, 
"  Sighing,  through  all  her  works,  gave  signs  of  woe, 
'«  That  all  was  lost  " 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  121 

Sweet  scented  flower,  who 't  wont  to  bloom 
On  January's  front  severe. 

The  meek-eyed  Morn  appears,  mother  of  dews. 

Young  Day  pours  in  apace, 

And  opens  all  the  dawny  prospect  wide. 

Oh !  there  is  a  charm,  that  morning  has, 

That  gives  the  brow  of  age  a  smack  of  youth 

And  makes  the  lip  of  youth  breathe  perfumes  exquisitt. 

The  breath  of  night 's  destructive  to  the  hue 
Of  every  flower  that  blows. 

No  arm,  in  the  day  of  the  conflict  could  wound  him, 
Though  war  launched  his  thunder  in  fury  to  kill. 

There  is  no  malice  in  this  burning  coal ; 

The  breath  of  heaven  hath  blown  its  spirit  out, 

And  strowed  repentant  ashes  on  his  head. 

Pale  Autumn  spreads  o'er  him  the  leaves  of  the  forest, 
The  fays  of  the  wild  chant  the  dirge  of  his  rest, 
And  thou,  little  brook,  still  the  sleeper  deplorest, 
And  moistenest  the  heath-bell  that  weeps  on  his  breast 

No  might  nor  greatness  in  mortality 

Can  censure  'scape ;  back- wounding  calumny 

The  whitest  virtue  strikes. 

I  have  marked 
A  thousand  blushing  apparitions  start 
Into  her  face ;  a  thousand  innocent  shames 
In  angel  whiteness  bear  away  these  blushes. 

All  delights  are  vain  ;  but  that  most  vain. 
Which,  with  pain  purchased,  doth  inherit  pain. 

Let  fame,  that  all  hunt  after  in  their  lives, 
Live  registered  upon  our  broken  tombs. 
And  then  grace  us  in  the  disgrace  of  death ; 
When,  spite  of  cormorant  devouring  time. 
The  endeavor  of  this  present  breath  may  bay 
That  honor,  which  shall  'bate  his  scythe's  keen  edge, 
And  make  us  heirs  of  all  eternity.  * 

*  Any  volume  of  poetry  will  furnish  exercises  of  this  kind  to  the  student^ 
lendcring  it  unnecessary  to  multiply  them  here.  In  personifying  inanimats 
objects,  things  remarkable  for  power,  greatness,  or  sublimity,  are  represented 
9A  males.  Things  beautiful,  amiable,  or  prolific,  or  spoken  of  as  receivers 
tnd  containers,  are  represented  a^s /emails. 

11 


*22  .    AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

XL. 

SIMILE,  OR  COMPARISON.* 

A  simile  is  the  likening  of  the  subject,  of  which  we  speak, 
to  another  subject  having  some  similarity,  in  order  to  render 
the  description  more  forcible  and  perspicuous.  In  a  strict 
sense,  it  differs  from  comparison,  in  which  the  subject  may 
have  an  obvious  likeness,  t  But  majiy  rhetoricians  consider 
"he  terms  as  synonymous,  and  in  this  light  they  are  presented 
in  this  connexion.  This  figure  is  extremely  frequent  both  in 
prose  and  poetry ;  and  it  is  often  as  necessary  to  the  exhibi- 
tion of  the  thought,  as  it  is  ornamental  to  the  language  in 
tvhicli  that  thought  is  conveyed. 

In  all  comparisons  there  should  be  found  something  new 
ur  surprising,  in  order  to  please  and  illustrate.  Consequent- 
ly they  must  never  be  instituted  between  things  of  the  same 
species,  f 


*  Every  simile  is  more  or  less  a  comparison,  —  but  every  compdnson  \t> 
not  a  simile ;  the  latter  compares  things  only  as  far  as  they  are  alike ;  but 
the  former  extends  to  those  things  which  are  different.  'In  this  manner 
there  may  be  a  comj^arisoyi  betv/een  large  things  and  small,  although  there 
can  be  no  good  simile. 

t  The  distinction  between  simile  and  comparison  is,  that  the  former  has 
reference  to  the  qiudity ;  the  latter  to  the  muiiitity.  Comparison  is  between 
more  and  less  ;  similitude  is  between  good  and  bad.  *'  Hannibal  hung  like 
a  tempest  on  the  declivities  of  the  Alps  "  —  is  a  likeness  by  similitiuie. 
"  The  sublimity  of  the  Scriptural  prophets  exceeds  that  of  Homer,  as  much 
as  thunder  is  louder  than  a  whisper"  —  is  a  likeness  by  comparison.  — J. 
Q.  Adams,  Lee.  9. 

X  The  simile,  or  comparison,  may  be  considered  as  differing  in  form  only 
from  a  Metaphor  the  resemblance  being  stated  in  the  comparison,  which 
in  the  metaphor  is  only  implied.  Each  may  be  founded  on  actual  resem- 
blance or  on  analogy.  Metaphors  and  comparisons  founded  on  analogv  are 
the  more  frequent  and  the  more  striking,  becanse  the  more  remote  and  un- 
like in  themselves  any  two  objects  are,  the  more  is  the  mind  impressed  and 
gratified  by  the  perception  of  some  point  in  which  they  agree.  Intimately 
connected  with  Simile  and  Comparison  is  the  Emblem  ;  the  literal  mean- 
ing of  which  is,  "  something  ituserteti  in  the  body  of  another  ;  "  but  the  word 
is  used  to  express  "  a  picture,  representing  one  thing  to  the  eye,  and  another 
to  the  understanding:"  or,  a  j)ainting,  or  representation,  intended  to  hold 
foi'th  some  moral,  or  political  instruction.  Thus,  a  balance  is  an  emblem 
of  pistice;  a  crown  is  the  emblem  of  royalty  ,'  a  scejHre,  of  power  or  sove 
reignty.  Any  thing,  which  represents  anotncr  thing  in  its  predominant 
qualities,  is  also  an  emblem.  Thus  a  looking  glass,  which  shows  spots, 
without  magnifying  them,  is  an  emblem  of  a  true  friend,  who  will  show  us 
our  faults  without  gxa(;gcration.    A  torch,  rtvorsed  aoid  expiring,  with  th» 


AIDS    TO    ENGLtiSH    COMPOSITION.  123 

All  comparisons,  says  Dr.  Blair,  maj  be  reduced  under  two 
heads,  explaining,  and  embellishing.  But  embellishing  com- 
parisons are  those  which  most  frequently  occur. 

Resemblance,  it  has  been  observed,  is  the  foundation  of  this  figure, 
but  resemblance  must  not  be  taken  in  too  strict  a  sense  for  actual  simili 
tude.  Two  objects  may  raise  a  train  of  concordant  ideas  in  the  mind, 
though  they  resemble  each  other,  strictly  speaking,  in  nothing.  For  ex- 
ample, to  describe  the  nature  of  soft  and  melancholy  music,  Ossian  says  ' 

"  The  music  of  Carryl,  like  the  memory  of  jojss  that  are  past,  was  pleias 
ant  and  mournful  to  the  soul." 

This  is  happy  and  delicate ;  yet  no  kind  of  music  bears  any  actual 
resemblance  to  the  memory  of  past  joys. 

Comparisons  should  not  be  introduced  on  all  occasions.  As  they  are 
the  language  of  imagination,  rather  than  of  passion,  an  author  can 
hardly  commit  a  greater  fault,  than  in  the  midst  of  passion  or  strong 
feeling  to  introduce  a  simile.  Even  in  poetry  it  should  be  employed  with 
moderation ;  but  in  prose  much  more  so. 

The  following  rules  are  laid  down  bv  Dr.  Blair  in  the  use  of  com- 
parisons : 

In  the ^rst,  they  must  not  be  drawn  from  things  which  have  too  near  and 
obvious  a  refiemblance  of  the  object  with  wliich  they  are  compared;  for 
'he  pleasure  wliich  we  receive  from  the  act  of  comparing  arises  from  the 
discoverv  of  likenesses  among  things  of  different  species  where  we  should 
not,  at  first  sight  expect,  a  resemblance. 

In  the  sccovd  place,  as  comparisons  ought  not  to  be  founded  on  likenesses 
too  obvious,  much  less  ought  they  to  be  founded  on  those  which  are  too 
faint  and  distant.  These,  instead  of  assisting,  strain  the  fancy  to.  compre 
hend  them,  and  throw  no  light  upon  the  subject-  - 

In  the  third  place,  the  object  from  which  a  comparison  is  drawn  ought 
never  to  be  an  unknown  object,  nor  one  of  which  few  people  can  have  a 
clear  idea.  Therefore  similes  founded  on  philosophical  discoveries,  or  on 
any  thing  with  which  persons  of  a  particular  trade  only,  or  a  particular 
profession,  are  acquainted,  produce  not  their  proper  effect.  They  should  be 
drawn  from  those  illustrious  and  noted  objects,  which  most  readers  have 
either  seen,  or  can  strongly  conceive. 

In  the  fowth  place,  in  compositions  of  a  serious  or  elevated  kind,  similes 
should  not  be  drawn  from  low  or  mean  objects.  These  degrade  and  vilify ; 
whereas  similes  are  generally  intended  to  embellish  and  dignify.  There- 
fore, except  in  burlesque  writings,  or  where  an  object  is  meant  to  be  de 
graded,  mean  ideas  should  never  be  presented. 


motto,  "  My  noimshment  is  my  bane,"  is  an  emblem  of  the  improper  use 
we  are  too  apt  to  make  of  things,  when  either  by  using  them  improperly,  oi 
too  freely   we  subvert  the  design  for  which  they  were  at  first  intended. 
''  The  oil  thus  feeds,  thus  quenches  flame  : 
So  love  gives  honor;  —  love  gives  shame." 

Quarles''  Book  of  Emblems- 

Emblems  are  frequently  the  foundations  of  both  Simile  and  Comparisca. 
Analogy  i«  the  foundation  of  the  three. 


124  AIDS   TO    ENGxilSH   COMPOSITION. 


Examples. 

1.  Wit  and  humor  are  like  those  volatile  essences,  which, 
being  too  delicate  to  bear  the  open  air,  evaporate  almost  a? 
soon  as  they  are  exposed  to  it. 

2.  Like  birds  whose  beauties  languish,  half  concealed. 
Till  mounted  on  the  wing  their  glossy  plumes 
Expanded,  shine  with  azure,  green,  and  gold, 
How  blessings  brighten  as  they  take  their  flight ! 

3.  And  in  the  smoke  the  pennons  flew, 
As  in  the  storm  the  white  sea-mew. 

4.  Then  marked  they  dashing  broad  and  far 
The  broken  billows  of  the  war. 

And  plumed  crests  of  chieftains  brave, 
Floating  like  foam  upon  the  wave. 

J.  She  never  told  her  love. 

But  let  concealment,  like  a  worm  in  the  bud, 
Feed  on  her  damask  cheek.     She  pined  in  thought, 
And  with  a  green  and  yellow  melancholy 
She  sat,  like  Patience  on  a  monument, 
Smiling  at  Grief. 

6.  Oh  Night, 

And  Storm  and  Darkness,  ye  are  wondrous  strong, 
Yet  lovely  in  your  strength  as  is  the  light 
Of  a  dark  eye  in  woman. 

7.  This  quiet  sail  is  as  a  noiseless  wing 

To  waft  me  from  distraction  ;  once  I  loved 
Torn  ocean's  roar ;  but  thy  soft  murmuring 
Sounds  sweet  as  if  a  sister's  voice  reproved 
That  I  with  stern  delights  should  e'er  liave  been  so  moved. 

8.  They  are  the  native  courtesies  of  a  feeling  mind, 
showing  themselves  amid  stern  virtues  and  masculine  energiee 
like  gleams  of  light  on  points  of  rocks. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  125 

9.  I  never  tempted  her  with  word  too  large ; 
But  as  a  brother  to  a  sister  showed 
Bashful  sincerity  and  comely  love. 

10.  Curses,  like  chickens,  always  come  home  to  roost. 

11.  As  no  roads  are  so  rough  as  those  which  have  just 
been  mended,  so  no  sinners  are  so  intolerant  as  those  that  have 
just  turned  saints. 

12.  True  friendship  is  like  sound  health,  the  value  of  it 
is  seldom  known  until  it  is  lost. 

Mxercises. 

Let  the  student  compare  a  man  of  integrity  with  a  rock ; 
and  show  the  circumstances  of  resemblance. 
Compare  Life,  with  the  Ocean. 
"        Adversity,  with  a  storm. 
"        Affluence,  with  a  fountain. 
"        the  life  of  man  with  the  leaves  on  the  tree. 
"        Death  with  the  falling  of  the  leaf. 
"        Youth,  with  Spring. 
"        Manhood,  with  Summer. 
"         Old  age,  with  Autumn. 
"        Death,  with  Winter. 
"        The  reflection  of  hght  from  the  water,  with  thn 

sparkling  of  the  diamond. 
"        Wit  and  Humor  with  a  volatile  essence. 
**        The  minds  of  the  aged,  with  the  tombs  which 

they  are  approaching. 
**        The  style  of  two  writers;   one  with  a  convex 

mirror,  scattering  the  light,  —  the  other  with 

the  concave  speculum,  concentrating  the  j:uyii 

to  a  focus. 
*        Departing  blessings  to  the  flight  of  bird^. 


XLL 

Al^TITHESIS. 

Antithesis  is  the  counterpart  of  comparison,  and  is  found«3<J 
on  the  contrast  or  opposition  of  two  **bjects.     By  contrast. 


126  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

objects  opposed  to  each  other  appear  in  a  stronger  light,  and 
their  peculiar  beauties  or  defects  appear  in  bold  relief. 

Antitheses,  like  comparisons,  must  be  subjected  to  some  rules.  Thejr 
must  take  place  between  things  of  the  same  species.  Substantives,  attn 
butes,  qualities,  faculties  of  the  same  kind,  must  be  set  in  opposition.  To 
constitute  an  antithesis  between  a  man  and  a  lion,  virtue  and  hunger, 
figure  and  color,  would  be  to  form  a  contrast  where  there  is  no  opposi- 
tion. But  to  contrast  one  man  with  another,  virtues  with  virtues,  fig- 
ures with  figures,  is  pertinent  and  proper,  because  in  these  cases  there 
must  be  striking  opposition. 

Antithesis  makes  the  most  brilliant  appearance  in  the  delineation  of 
characters,  particularly  in  history.  The  historian,  in  the  performance  of 
this  delicate  part  of  his  task  has  a  good  opportunity  for  displaying  his 
discernment  and  knowledge  of  human  nature ;  and  of  distinguishing  those 
nice  shades  by  which  virtues  and  vices  run  into  one  another.  It  is  by 
6uch  colors  only  that  a  character  can  be  strongly  painted,  and  antithesis 
is  necessary  to  denote  those  distinctions. 

Antithesis,  also,  by  placing  subjects  in  contrast,  prompts  the  judge 
ment ;  and  is  therefore  a  very  common  figure  in  argumentative  writing. 

Antithesis  is  also  used  with  great  advantage  in  descriivions  or  repre- 
sentations of  the  power  and  extent  of  a  quality,  as  follows  . 

"I  can  command  the  lightnings,  —  and  am  dust." 

Again.  In  the  description  of  the  power  of  the  steam-engine,  a  late 
wi'itcr  says :  "  The  trunk  of  an  elephant,  that  can  pick  up  a  pin  or  rend 
an  oak,  is  as  nothing  to  it.  It  can  engrave  a  seal  and  crush  masses  of 
obdurate  metal  before  it,  —  draw  out,  without  breaking,  a  thread  as  fine 
as  gossamer,  and  lift  up  a  ship  of  war  like  a  bauble  in  the  air.  It  can 
embroider  muslin  and  forge  anchors,  —  cut  steel  into  ribands,  and  impel 
loaded  vessels  against  the  fury  of  the  winds  and  waves."  * 

Examples. 

1.  Behold  my  servants  shall  eat,  but  ye  shall  be  hungry; 
behold  my  servants  shall  drink,  but  ye  shall  be  thirsty  ;  behold 
my  servants  shall  rejoice,  but  ye  shall  be  ashamed. 

2.     Religion  and  Superstition,  contrasted. 

Religion  is  the  offspring  of  Truth  and  Love,  and  the  parent 
of  Benevolence,  Hope  and  Joy.     Superstition  is  the  child  of 


*  The  author  of  Lacon  very  justly  remarks :  "  To  extirpate  antithesis 
from  liternturo  nltopjethcr,  would  be  to  destroy  at  one  stroke  about  eicht 
tenths  of  all  the  v.-it,  ancient  and  modeni,  now  existing  in  the  world,  jft  is 
a  figure  capiib'c  not  only  of  the  greatest  wit.  but  sometimes  of  the  greatest 
beauty,  and  Bomctimes  of  the  groatf  st  subllnity." 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  127 

L.-'<riojiivsnt,  and  her  children  are  Pear  and  Sorrow.  The 
termer  invites  us  to  the  moderate  enjoyment  of  the  world, 
and  all  its  tranquil  and  rational  pleasures.  The  latter  teaches 
us  only  that  man  was  born  to  mourn  and  to  be  wretched. 
The  foimer  invites  us  to  the  contemplation  of  the  various 
beauties  ot  the  globe,  which  heaven  has  destined  for  the  seat 
of  the  human  race  ;  and  proves  to  us  that  a  world  so  exquis- 
itely framed  could  not  be  meant  for  the  abode  of  misery  and 
pain.  The  latter  exhorts  us  to  retire  from  the  world,  to  fly 
from  the  enchantments  of  social  delight,  and  to  consecrate  the 
hours  to  sohtary  lamentation.  The  former  teaches  us  that  to 
enjoy  the  blessmgs  sent  by  our  benevolent  Creator  is  virtue 
and  obedience.  The  latter  informs  us  that  every  enjoyment 
is  HH  offence  to  the  Deity,  who  is  to  be  worshipped  only  by 
tha  mortification  of  every  sense  of  pleasure,  and  the  everlasting 
wrercise  of  sighs  and  tears. 

3.  Though  deep,  yet  clear,  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull. 
Strong  without  rage,  without  o'erflowing,  full. 

4.  Knowledge  and  Wisdom,  far  frcnn  being  one. 
Have  oft-times  no  connection.     Knowledge  dwelli* 
In  heads  replete  with  thoughts  of  other  men ; 
Wisdom  in  minds  attentive  to  their  own. 
Knowledge,  a  rude,  unprofitable  mass. 

The  mere  materials  with  which  Wisdom  builds, 
Till  smoothed  and  squared,  and  fitted  to  its  place, 
Does  but  encumber  whom  it  seems  to  enrich. 
Knowledge  is  proud  that  he  has  learned  so  much ; 
Wisdom  is  humble  that  he  knows  no  more. 

5.  An  upright  minister  asks  what  recommends  a  man  ;  t 
corrupt  minister  asks  who  recommends  him. 

6.  When  the  million  applaud,  you   ask  what  harm  yon 
have  done ;  when  they  censure  you,  what  good. 

7.  Contemporaries  appreciate  the  man  rather  than  the 
merit ;  but  posterity  will  regard  the  merit  rather  tnan  the  man. 

8.  Contrasted  faults  through  all  his  manners  reign. 
Though  poor,  luxurious  ;  though  submissive,  vain, 
Though  grave,  yet  trifling ;  zealous,  yet  untrue, 
And  e'.in  in  penance  planning  sins  anew. 


128  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

The  student  may  now  write  a  list  of  subjects  in  pain 
which  can  be  presented  in  antithesis,  and  present  one  oi 
njore  of  them  accordingly. 


XLH. 

PARALLEL. 

A  parallel,  considered  as  a  composition,  is  a  kind  of  compai« 
ison  made  to  exhibit  the  resemblance  between  two  characters 
or  writings,  to  show  their  conformity  as  it  is  continued  through 
many  particulars,  or  in  essential  points.  The  parallel  is 
sometimes  diversified  by  antitheses,  to  show  in  a  strong  light 
the  points  of  individual  distinction. 

Example  \st. 

PARALLEL    BETWEEN   POPE   AND    DRTDEN. 

Pope  professed  to  have  learned  liis  poetry  from  Dr}'den,  whom,  when- 
ever an  oppoitunity  was  presented,  he  praised  through  liis  whok-  life 
with  unvaried  liberality,  nii'l  perhaps  his  character  may  receive  some 
illustration  if  he  he  compared  with  his  master. 

Integrity  of  understanding;,  and  nieetv  of  discernment,  were  not  allotted 
in  a  less  proportion  to  Dryden  than  to  tope.  The  rectitude  of  Dryden's 
mind  was  sufficiently  shown  by  the  dismission  of  his  poetical  prejudices, 
and  the  rejection  of  unnatural  thoughts  and  rugged  numbers.  But  Diy- 
den  never  desired  to  apply  all  the  judgment  that  he  had.  He  wrote,  and 
professed  to  >vrite,  merely  for  the  people ;  and  when  he  pleased  others  he 
contented  himself.  Ho  spent  no  time  in  struggles  to  rouse  latent  powers ; 
he  never  attempted  to  make  that  better  which  was  already  g(K>d,  nor 
often  to  mend  what  he  must  have  known  to  be  faulty.  He  wrote,  as  he 
tells  us,  with  very  little  consideration;  when  occasion  or  necessity  called 
upon  him,  he  poured  out  what  the  present  moment  happened  to  supply 
and  when  once  it  had  i)assed  the  press,  ejected  it  from  his  mind ;  for, 
when  he  had  no  pecuniary  interest,  he  had  no  further  solicitude. 

Pope  was  not  content  to  satisfy;  he  desired  to  excel,  and  therefore  al- 
ways endeavored  to  do  liis  best;  he  did  not  court  the  candor,  but  dared 
the  judgment  of  his  rcjulcr,  and,  expecting  no  indulgence  from  others,  he 
showed  none  to  himself.  He  examined  lines  and  words  with  minute  and  ' 
punctilious obsenation,  and  retouched  every  part  witli  indefatigable  dili- 
pjnce,  till  lie  had  left  nothing  to  be  forgiven.  For  this  reason  he  kept 
his  pieces  voary  long  in  his  hands,  while  he  considered  and  reconsidered 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  129 

rjiem.  The  only  poems  which  can  be  supposed  to  have  been  written  with 
such  regai-d  to  the  times  as  might  hasten  their  publication,  were  the  two 
oatires  of  Thirty-eight ;  of  which  Dodsley  told  me,  that  they  were  brought 
to  him  by  the  author,  that  they  might  be  fairly  copied,  "  Every  line," 
said  he,  "  was  then  wi-itten  twice  over ;  I  gave  him  a  clean  transcript, 
which  he  sent  some  time  afterwards  to  me  for  the  press,  with  every  hne 
written  twice  over  a  second  time." 

His  declaration,  that  his  care  for  his  Avorks  ceased  at  their  publication, 
was  not  strictly  true.  His  parental  attention  never  abandoned  them, 
what  he  found  amiss  in  the  first  edition,  he  silently  corrected  in  those 
that  followed.  He  appears  to  have  revised  the  Iliad,  and  freed  it  from 
some  of  its  impeifections ;  and  the  Essay  on  Criticism  received  many  im- 
provements after  its  first  appearance.  It  will  seldom  be  found  that  he 
altered  without  adding  clearness,  elegance,  or  vigor.  Pope  had  perhaps 
the  judgment  of  Dryden ;  but  Dryden  certainly  wanted  tlae  diligence  of 
Pope. 

In  acquired  knowledge,  the  superiority  must  be  allowed  to  Dryden, 
whose  education  was  more  scholastic,  and  who,  before  he  became  an  au- 
thor, had  been  allowed  more  time  for  study,  with  better  means  of  infor- 
mation. His  mind  has  a  larger  range,  and  he  collects  his  images  and 
illustrations  from  a  more  extensive  circumference  of  science.  Dryden 
knew  more  of  man  in  his  general  nature,  and  Pope  in  his  local  manners. 
The  notions  of  Dryden  were  formed  by  comprehensive  speculation,  and 
ihose  of  Pope  by  minute  attention.  There  is  more  dignity  in  the 
knowledge  of  Diyden,  and  more  certainty  in  that  of  Pope.  Poetry  was 
not  the  sole  praise  of  either,  for  both  excelled  likewise  in  prose ;  but  Pope 
did  not  borrow  his  prose  from  his  predecessor.  The  style  of  Dryden  is 
capricious  and  varied ;  that  of  Pope  is  cautious  and  unifonn.  Dryden. 
obeys  the  motions  of  his  own  mind.  Pope  constrains  his  mind  to  his  own 
rules  of  composition.  Dry-den  is  sometimes  vehement  and  rapid.  Pope 
is  always  smooth,  uniform,  and  gentle.  Diyden's  page  is  a  natural  field, 
rising  into  inequalities,  and  diversified  by  the  varied  exuberance  of  abun- 
dant vegetation ;  Pope's  is  a  velvet  laAvn,  shaven  by  the  scythe,  and 
levelled  by  the  roller. 

Of  genius,  that  power  which  constitutes  a  poet ;  that  quality  without 
which  judgment  is  cold,  and  knowledge  is  inert ;  that  energy  which  col- 
lects, combines,  amplifies,  and  animates ;  the  superiority  must,  with  som^ 
hesitation,  be  allowed  to  Dryden.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred,  that  of  this 
poetical  vigor  Pope  had  only  a  little,  because  Diyden  had  more ;  foi 
every  other  wi-iter,  since  Milton,  must  give  place  to  Pope ;  and  even  of 
Dryden  it  must  be  said,  that  if  he  has  brighter  paragraphs,  he  has  not 
better  poems.  Dryden's  performances  were  always  hasty,  cither  excited 
by  some  external  occasion,  or  extorted  by  domestic  necessity ;  he  com 
posed  without  consideration,  and  published  without  coiTCCtion.  What 
his  mind  could  supply  at  call,  or  gather  in  one  excursion,  was  all  that  he 
sought,  and  all  that  he  gave.  The  dilatory  caution  of  Pope  enabled  him 
to  condense  his  sentiments,  to  multiply  his  images,  and  to  accumulate  all 
that  sludy  might  produce,  or  chance  might  supply.  If  the  flights  of  Dry- 
den, therefore,  are  higher.  Pope  continues  longer  on  the  wing.  If  of 
Dryden's  fij-e  the  blaze  is  brighter,  of  Pope's  the  heat  is  more  regular  an^ 
constant.  Dryden  often  surpasses  expectation,  and  Pope  never  falls  be 
low  it.  Dryden  is  read  with  freauent  astonishment,  and  Pope  witfe 
perpetual  delight. 


130  A.1DS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

This  parallel  wUl,  I  hope,  where  it  is  well  considered,  be  found  just 
and  if  the  reader  should  suspect  me,  as  I  suspect  myself,  of  some  partial 
fondness  for  the  memory  of  I)r}  den,  let  him  not  too  hastily  condemn  me 
for  meditation  and  inquiry  may,  perhaps,  show  him  the  reasonableness  of 
my  determination. 

Mxample  2c?. 

PARALLEL   BETWEEN   JAY   AND    HAMILTON. 

It  were,  indeed,  a  bold  task  to  venture  to  draw  into  comparison  the  rela 
fc7e  merits  of  Jay  and  Hamilton  on  the  ftime  and  fortunes  of  their  country, 
—  a  bold  task,  —  and  yet,  bold  as  it  is,  we  feel  impelled  at  least  to  venture 
on  opening  it.  They  'were  undoubtedly  par  nobile  fratrum^  and  yet  not 
tvdn  brothers,  — pares  sed  impares^  —  like,  but  unlike.  In  patriotic  attach 
ment  equal,  for  who  would  venture  therein  to  assign  to  either  the  superi 
ority  ?  yet  was  that  attachment,  though  equal  in  degree,  far  different  in 
kind  ;  with  Hamilton  it  was  a  sentiment,  with  Jay  a  principle ;  with  Hamil 
ton,  enthusiastic  passion,  with  Jay,  duty  as  well  as  love ;  with  Hamilton, 
patriotism  was  the  paramount  law,  with  Jay,  a  law  sub  gravion  lege. 
Either  would  have  gone  through  fire  and  water  to  do  his  country  service, 
and  laid  down  freely  his  life  for  her  safety,  Hamilton  with  the  roused  cour 
age  of  a  lion,  Jay  with  the  calm  fearlessness  of  a  mim ;  or,  rather,  Hamil 
ton's  courage  would  have  been  that  of  a  soldier.  Jay's,  that  of  a  Christian 
Of  the  latter  it  might  be  truly  said : 

"  Conscience  made  him  firm, 
That  boon  companion,  who  her  strong  breastplate 
Buckles  on  lilm,  that  tears  no  guilt  within, 
And  bids  him  on,  and  fear  not." 

In  intellectual  power,  in  depth,  and  grasp,  and  versatility  of  mind,  as  well 
as  in  all  the  snlendid  and  brilliant  parts  which  captivate  and  adorn,  Hamil- 
ton was  greatly,  not  to  say  immeasurably,  Jay's  superior.  In  the  calm  and 
deeper  wisdom  of  practical  dutv,  in  the  government  of  others,  and  still 
more  in  the  government  of  himself,  in  seeing  clearly  the  right,  and  foUowine  it 
whithersoever  it  led  firmly,  patiently,  self-denyingly.  Jay  was  again  greatly 
if  not  immeasurably,  Hamilton's  superior.  In  statesman-like  talent,  Hamil 
ton's  mind  had  in  it  more  of  "  constructive  "  power,  Jay's  of  "  executive." 
Hamilton  had  genius.  Jay  had  wisdom.  We  would  have  taken  Hamilton 
to  plan  a  government,  and  Jay  to  carry  it  into  execution  ;  and  in  a  court 
of  law  we  would  have  Hamilton  for  our  advocate,  if  our  cause  were  gener 
ous,  and  Jay  for  iudge,  if  our  cause  were  just 

The  fame  of  Hamilton,  hke  his  parts,  we  deem  to  shine  brighter  and  far 
ther  than  Jay's,  but  wo  are  not  sure  that  it  should  be  so,  or  rather  we  are 
quite  sure  that  it  should  not.  For,  when  we  come  to  examine  and  compare 
tneir  relative  course,  and  its  bearing  on  the  country  and  its  fortunes,  the 
reputation  of  Hamilton  we  find  to  go  as  far  beyond  liis  practical  share  in  it, 
as  Jay's  falls  short  of  his.  Hamilton's  civil  official  life  was  a  brief  and 
single,  though  brilliant  one.  Jay's  numbered  the  vears  of  a  generation,  and 
exhausted  every  department  of  diplomatic,  civil,  and  judicial  trust.  In 
fidelity  to  their  country,  both  were  pui-e  to  their  heart's  core  ;  yet  was 
Hamilton  loved,  perhaps,  more  than  trusted;  and  Jay  trusted,  perhaps,  more 
than  loved. 

Such  were  they,  we  deem,  in  difTorlng,  if  not  contrasted,  points  of  char 
acter.  Their  lives,  too,  when  viewed  from  a  distance,  stand  out  in  equally 
Bti iking  but  much  more  painful  contrast.  Jay's,  viewed  as  a  whole,  has  in 
«t  a  completeness  of  part*  such  as  a  nicer  critic  demands  for  the  perfection 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  lUl 

•f  an  epic  poem,  with  its  beginning  of  promise,  its  heroic  middle,  and  its 
peaceful  end,  and  partaking,  too,  somewhat  of  the  same  cold  stateliness 
noble,  however,  still,  and  glorious,  and  ever  pointing,  as  such  poem  does,  to 
the  stars.  Sic  itiir  ad  astra.  The  life  of  Hamilton,  on  the  other  hand, 
broken  and  fragmentary,  begun  in  the  darkness  of  romantic  interest,  nin 
ning  on  into  the  sympathy  of  a  high  passion,  and  at  length  breaking  off  in 
the  midst,  like  some  half-told  tale  of  sorrow,  amid  tears  and  blood,  even  as 
does  the  theme  of  the  tragic  poet.  The  name  of  Hamilton,  therefore,  was  a 
name  to  conjure  with ;  that  of  Jajj-,  to  swear  by.  Hamilton  had  his  frailties, 
arising  out  of  passion,  as  tragic  heroes  have.  Jay's  name  was  faultless,  and 
his  course  passionless,  as  becomes  the  epic  leader,  and,  in  point  of  fact,  was, 
Vrhile  living,  a  name  at  which  frailty  blushed,  and  corruption  trembled. 

If  we  ask  whence,  humanly  spealting,  came  such  disparity  of  the  fate  be- 
tween equals,  the  stricter  morals,  the  happier  life,  the  more  peaceful  death, 
to  what  can  we  trace  it  but  to  the  healthful  power  of  religion  over  the  heart 
and  conduct  ?  Was  not  this,  we  ask,  the  ruling  secret  ?  Hamilton  was  a 
Christian  in  his  youth,  and  a  penitent  Christian,  we  doubt  not,  on  his  dying 
bed^  but  Jay  was  a  Christian,  so  far  as  man  may  jutlge,  every  day  and 
hour  of  his  life.  He  ha<l  but  one  rule,  the  gospel  of 'Christ ;  in  that  he  was 
nurtured,  —  ruled  by  that,  through  grace,  he  lived,  —  resting  on  that,  in 
pi-ayer,  he  died. 

Admitting,  then,  as  we  do,  both  names  to  be  objects  of  our  highest  sym 
pathetic  admiration,  yet,  with  the  name  of  Hamilton,  as  the  master  says  of 
tragedy,  the  lesson  is  given  "  with  pity  and  in  fear."  Not  so  with  that  of 
Jay ;  with  him  we  Avalk  fearless,  as  in  the  steps  of  one  who  was  a  Chris 
riAN  as  well  as  a  patriot. 


Exercises. 

A  Parallel  between  the  Old  and  Ncav  Testament. 

„  between  the  wi-itings  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  John. 

„  The  character  of  Napoleon  and  of  Washington 

„  Lord  Bacon  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

„  The  Profession  of  the  Law  and  that  of  Divinity. 

„  The  invention  of  the  art  of  printing  with  the  discovery  of 

the  application  of  steam  to  mechanical  purposes. 


XLIII. 

ALLEGORY 
Allegory  *  is  a  species  of  writing,  in  which  one  thing  is  ex- 

*  Dr.  Blair  says,  "  An  allegory  is  a  continued  metaphor ;  as  it  is  the 
representation  of  one  thing  by  another  that  resembles  it."  And  under  the 
head  of  metaphor  he  says,  "  When  the  resemblance  which  is  the  foundation 
of  this  figure  is  long  dwelt  upon,  and  carried  into  all  its  minute  circuin 
«tar  "es,  an  allegory  is  produced  instead  of  a  metaphor." 


132  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

pressed,  and  another  is  understood.  The  analogy  is  intended 
to  be  so  obvious  that  the  reader  cannot  miss  the  application  ; 
but  he  is  left  to  draw  the  proper  conclusion  for  his  own  use. 

It  is,  for  this  reason,  chiefly  employed  when  a  wi-itcr  desires  to  com- 
municate some  important  intelligence  or  advice;  but  is  not  permitted,  or 
does  not  wish,  to  deliver  it  in  plain  terms.  It  is  also  used  for  ornament, 
or  to  convey  instruction,  so  as  to  interest  the  imagination,  and  flatter  tho 
understanding,  by  giving  the  reader  tlie  appearance  of  instructing  himself 

Allegories  are  of  three  kinds :  first,  those  designed  for  or 
nament ;  secondly,  those  designed  for  instruction  ;  and,  thirdly, 
those  intended  both  to  adorn  and  instruct.  In  employing  al- 
legories, care  must  be  taken  that  the  phraseology  be  all  figu- 
rative, and  that  the  attributes  of  the  primary  and  secondary 
object  be  not  confounded  and  interchanged. 

Example  1st.* 

PATIENCE,   AN   ALLEGORY. 

Patience  was  the  cliild  of  Forbearance  and  Gentleness,  and 
they  lived  in  the  town  of  Perseverance.  When  very  young, 
she  began  to  exercise  that  virtue  which  was  aftenvards 
named  from  her.  She  was  a  very  extraordinary  child,  and 
it  has  ever  been  said  of  her,  that  she  could  work  all  things. 
She  had  an  aunt  called  Adversity,  who  troubled  her  very 
much,  but,  it  was  observed,  that  the  more  she  was  subjected 
to  the  trials  of  this  relation,  the  more  brightly  the  lustre  of 
her  character  shone  forth ;  for,  while  her  uncle.  Prosperity 
was  near  her,  she  seemed  to  have  no  opportunity  of  exercis- 
ing her  graces.  She  had  a  grandmother,  (on  her  mother's 
side,)  named  Meekness,  and  she  seemed  to  imbibe  many  of 

*  This  allegory  was  written  by  one  of  the  ptipils  of  the  school  under  the 
charge  of  the  author.  It  is  presented  just  as  it  wiis  written  by  the  young 
lady,  who,  though  but  "  iust  m  her  teen.s,"  has  certainly  sust-ained  the  figure 
throughout  in  excellent  "  keeping^ 

As  instances  of  the  allegory,  which  may  be  studied  and  imitated,  may 
be  mentioned,  "  Tho  Hill  of  Science,"  and,  "  The  Journey  of  a  Dav,  a 
Picture  of  Human  Life,"  by  Johnson ;  "  An  Eastern  Narrative,"  by  Hawks 
worth,  entitled,  "No  Life  pleasing  to  God  which  is  not  useful  to  Man;" 
••  Tho  Eightieth  Psalm  of  David ;  "  No.  55  of  the  "  Spectator ;  "  and  '  The 
Pilgrim's  Progress,"  which  is,  perhaps,  the  longest  allegory  ever  written. 
To  these  may  be  added  a  very  recent  little  work  of  Charles  Dickens,  en 
tiled,  "  A  Christmas  Carol,"  which  cannot  be  too  highly  commended  foi 
the  moral  lea»on  which  it  conveys. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  '       133 

the  qualities  of  that  excellent  lady.  She  also  had  a  grand- 
father, Goodness,  whose  blood  seemed  to  run  in  her  veins  in 
a  large  degree.  All  who  lived  in  her  neighborhood  used  to 
say,  that  she  was  the  loveliest  child  they  evei  beheld-  But, 
although  so  much  admired,  she  had  no  Pride  about  her, 
though  Vanity,  an  old  man  living  in  the  vicinity,  used  to  lay 
a  claim  to  relationship  with  her.  She  was  very  much  troubled 
by  his  daughters,  Seliconceit  and  Foolishness,  but  she  never 
retorted  in  the  least.  Even  they  themselves  could  not  say, 
that  they  had  ever  heard  an  angry  word  proceed  from  her 
lips,  and,  although  they  tried  to  disturb  and  rufile  her  uniform 
good  nature,  they  never  could  succeed  so  far,  as  even  to  be 
able  to  say,  that  she  ever  appeared  to  cherish  a  wrathful 
spirit.  She  had  no  Hatred  about  her,  neither  would  she  foster 
Spite  or  Malice  in  her  innocent  heart.  .  She  made  rapid  ad- 
vances from  day  to  day,  in  every  good  word  and  work,  and 
her  name  even  became  a  proverb  among  all  who  knew  her. 
Mothers  made  her  an  example  to  their  daughters,  and  fathers 
did  not  forget  her  when  admonishing  their  sons.  She  became 
more  beloved  and  respected  every  day  of  her  life,  by  all,  for 
no  one  could  see  her  without  admiring  her  for  her  many  good 
qualities.  She  appeared  to  be  compounded  of  all  the  qualities 
that  adorn  the  female  character,  without  the  least  mixture  of 
anything  bad.  In  due  time  she  was  married  to  a  young 
gentleman,  by  the  name  of  Longsuffering.  Some  of  the  most 
distinguished  among  her  children  were  Faith,  Hope,  and 
Charity. 

Example  2d. 

THE   EMPIRE    OF   POETRY. 

BY    FONTENELLE. 

riiis  empire  is  a  very  large  and  populous  country.  It  is  divided,  like 
some  of  the  countries  on  the  continent,  into  the  higher  and  lower  regions. 
The  upper  region  is  inhabited  by  grave,  melancholy  and  sullen  people,  who, 
like  other  mountaineers,  speak  a  language  very  different  from  that  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  valleys.  The  trees  in  this  part  of  the  country  are  very 
tall,  having  their  tops  among  the  clouds.  Their  horses  are  superior  to  those 
of  Barbary,  being  fleeter  than  the  winds.  Their  women  are  so  beautiful  as 
to  eclipse  the  star  of  day. 

The  great  city  which  you  see  in  the  maps,  beyond  the  lofty  mountains, 
is  the  capital  of  this  province,  and  is  called  Epic.  It  is  built  on  a  sandv 
and  ungrateful  soil,  which  few  take  the  trouble  to  cultivate.  The  length 
of  the  city  is  many  days'  journey,  and  it  is  otherwise  of  a  tiresome  extent. 
On  leaving  its  gate,  we  always  meet  with  men  who  are  killing  one  another  • 
whereas,  when  we  pass  through  Romance,  wkch  forms  the  suburbs  of 
12 


[34       ^  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


Epic,  and  \  ach  is  larger  than  the  city  itself,  we  meet  with  groups  of  happy 
people,  whv  ire  hastening  to  the  shrine  of  Hymen.  The  Mountains  of 
Tragecly  are  also  in  the  province  of  Upper  Poetry.  They  are  very  steep, 
with  dangerous  precipices :  and,  in  consequence,  many  of  its  people  build 
their  habitations  at  the  bottom  of  the  hills,  and  imagine  themselves  high 
enough.  There  have  been  found  on  these  mountains  some  very  beautifixl 
ruins  of  ancient  cities ;  and,  from  time  to  time,  the  materials  are  carried 
lower  down  to  build  new  cities ;  for  tliey  now  never  build  nearly  so  high  aa 
tliev  seem  to  have  done  in  former  times.  The  Lower  Poetry  is  very  similar 
to  the  swumps  of  Holland.  Burlesque  is  the  capital,  which  is  situated  amidst 
stagnant  pools.  Princes  speak  there  as  if  they  had  sprung  from  the  dung 
hill,  and  all  the  inhabitants  are  buffoons  from  tlieir  birth. 

Comedy  is  a  city  which  is  built  on  a  plejisant  spot,  but  it  is  too  near  to 
burlesque,  and  itg  trade  with  this  place  has  much  degraded  the  maimers  of 
its  citizens. 

I  beg  that  you  will  notice,  on  the  map,  those  vast  solitudes  which  lie  be 
tween  Hic'h  and  Low  Poetry,  They  are  called  the  deserts  of  Common 
Sense.  1  nere  is  not  a  single  city  in  the  whole  of  this  extensive  country, 
and  only  a  few  cottages  scattered  at  a  distance  from  one  another.  The  in- 
terior of  the  country  is  beautiful  and  fertile,  but  you  need  not  wonder  that 
there  are  so  few  who  chocfse  to  reside  in  it ;  for  the  entrance  is  very  rugged 
on  all  sides  ;  the  roads  are  narrow  and  difficult ;  and  there  are  seldom  any 
guides  to  be  found,  who  are  capable  of  conductuig  strangers. 

Besides,  this  country  borders  on  a  province  where  every  person  prefers 
to  remain,  because  it  appears  to  be  very  agreeable,  and  saves  the  trouble  of 
penetrating  into  the  Deserts  of  Common  Sense.  It  is  the  Province  of  False 
Thoughts.  Here  we  always  tread  on  flowers,  —  everything  seems  enchant- 
mg.  But  its  greatest  inconvenience  is,  that  the  ground  is  not  solid ;  the 
foot  is  always  sinking  in  the  mire,  however  careful  one  may  be.  Elegy  is 
the  Capital.  Here  the  people  do  nothing  but  comijlain ;  but  it  is  said  that 
they  find  a  pleasure  in  their  complaints.  The  city  is  surrounded  with 
woods  and  rocks,  where  the  inhabitant  walks  alone,  making  them  the  con 
tidants  of  his  secrets ;  of  the  discovery  of  which  ho  is  so  much  afraid,  that 
he  often  conjures  those  woods  and  rocks  never  to  betray  them. 

The  Empire  of  Poetry  is  watered  by  two  rivers.  One  is  the  River  Rhyme, 
which  has  its  source  at  the  foot  of  the  Mountains  of  Reverie.  The  tops  of 
some  of  these  mountains  are  so  elevated,  that  they  pierce  the  clouds.  Those 
are  called  the  Points  of  Sublime  Thought.  Many  climb  there  by  extraor- 
dinarjr  efforts ;  but  almost  the  whole  tumble  down  again,  and  excite,  by 
their  fall,  the  ridicule  of  those  who  admired  them  at  first  without  knowing 
wliy.  'i'here  lu-e  larce  platforms,  almost  at  the  bottom  of  these  mountains, 
which  are  called  the  Terraces  of  Low  Thoughts.  There  are  always  a  great 
number  of  people  walking  upon  them.  At  tlie  end  of  these  terraces  are  the 
Caverns  oi  Deep  Reverie.  Those  who  descend  into  them  do  so  insensibly; 
being  so  much  enwrapt  in  their  meditations,  that  they  enter  the  caverns  be- 
fore they  are  aware.  These  caverns  are  perfect  labyrinths,  and  the  dif 
ticulty  of  getting  out  again  could  scarcely  be  believed  by  those  who  have 
not  been  there.  Above  the  terraces  we  sometimes  meet  with  men  walking 
in  easy  paths,  which  are  tcnncd  the  Paths  of  Natural  Thoughts ;  and  these 
gentlemen  ridicule,  equally,  those  who  try  to  scale  the  Points  of  Sublime 
Thoughts,  as  well  as  those  who  grovel  on  the  terraces  below.  They  would 
DO  in  the  right,  if  they  could  keep  undeviatingly  in  the  Paths  of  Natunil 
Thoughts  ;  but  they  fall  almost  instantly  into  a  snare,  by  entering  into  a  splen 
did  palace,  which  is  at  a  very  little  distance.  It  is  the  Palace  of  Badinage. 
Scarcely  have  they  entered,  when,  in  place  of  the  natural  thoughts  which 
they  formerly  had,  thoy  dwell  upon  such  only  as  are  mean  and  vulgar. 
Ihose,  however,  who  never  abandon  the  Patlis  of  Natural  Thoughts,  are  the 
tfiost  nitional  of  all.  They  aspire  no  higher  than  they  ought,  and  tlieir 
thoughts  »re  never  at  variance  with  sound  judgment. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  133 

Besides  thoi  Kiver  Rhyme,  which  I  have  described  as  issuing  from  the  foot 
of  the  moantains,  there  is  another  called  the  River  of  Reason.  These  two 
rivers  are  at  a  great  distance  from  one  another,  and,  as  they  have  a  very 
different  course,  they  could  not  be  made  to  communicate,  except  by  canals, 
which  would  cost  a  great  deal  of  labor.  For  these  canals  of  communication 
could  not  be  formed  at  all  places,  because  there  is  only  one  part  of  the 
River  Rhyme  which  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  River  Reason,  and  hence 
many  cities  situated  on  the  Rhyme,  such  as  Roundelay  and.  Ballad,  could 
have  no  commerce  with  the  Reason,  whatever  pains  might  be  taken  foi 
that  purpose.  Further,  it  would  be  necessary  that  these  canals  should 
cross  the  Deserts  of  Common  Sense,  as  you  will  see  by  the  map  ;  and  that 
it  is  almost  an  unknown  coiintry.  The  Rhyme  is  a  large  river,  whose 
coui-se  is  crooked  and  unequal,  and,  on  account  of  its  numerous  falls,  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to  navigate.  On  the  contrary,  the  Reason  is  very 
straight  and  regular,  but  it  does  not  carry  vessels  of  eveiy  burthen. 

There  is,  in  the  Land  of  Poetry,  a  very  obscure  forest,  where  the  rays  of 
the  sun  never  enter.  It  is  the  foi-est  of  Bombast.  The  trees  are  close, 
spreading,  and  twined  into  each  other.  The  forest  is  so  ancient,  that  it  has 
become  a  sort  of  sacrilege  to  prune  its  trees,  and  there  is  no  probability 
that  the  ground  will  ever  be  cleared.  A  few  steps  into  this  forest  and  we 
lose  our  road  without  dreaming  that  we  have  gone  astray.  It  is  full  of  im 
perceptible  labyrinths,  from  which  no  one  ever  returns.  The  Reason  is  lost 
m  this  forest. 

The  extensive  province  of  Imitation  is  very  sterile?  It  produces  nothing. 
The  inhabitants  are  extremely  poor,  and  are  obliged  to  glean  in  the  richer 
fields  of  the  neighboring  provinces  ;  and  some  even  make  fortunes  by  this 
beggarly  occupation.  The  Empire  of  Poetry  is  very  cold  towards  the  north, 
and,  consequently,  this  quarter  is  the  most  populous.  There  are  the  cities 
of  Anagram  and  Acrostic,  with  several  others  of  a  similar  description. 
Finally,  in  tj^at  sea  which  bounds  the  States  of  Poetry,  there  is  the  Island 
of  Satire,  surrounded  with  bitter  waves.  The  salt  from  the  water  is  very 
strong  and  dark  colored.  The  greater  part  of  the  brooks  of  this  Island  re- 
semble the  Nile  in  this,  that  their  sources  are  unknown  ;  but  it  is  particu- 
larly remarkable,  that  there  is  not  one  of  them  whose  waters  ai*e  fresh.  A 
part  of  the  same  sea  is  called  the  Archipelago  of  Trifles.  The  French  term 
It  L'Archipel  des  Bagatelles,  and  their  voyagers  are  well  acquainted  with 
those  islands.  Nature  seems  to  have  thrown  them  up  in  sport,  as  she  did 
those  of  the  Mgean  Sea.  The  principal  islands  are  the  Madrigal,  the  Song, 
and  the  Impromptu.  No  lands  can  be  Hghter  than  those  islands,  for  they 
float  upon  the  waters. 

Example  3d. 

A  humming  bird  once  met  a  butterfly,  and  being  pleased  with  the  beauty 
of  its  person  and  the  glory  of  its  wings,  made  an  offer  of  perpetual  friend 
ship. 

I  cannot  think  of  it,  was  the  reply,  as  you  once  spurned  me,  and  called 
me  a  drawling  dolt. 

Impossible,  cried  the  humming  bird ;  I  always  entertained  the  highest 
respect  for  such  beautiful  creatures  as  you.  Perhaps  you  do  now,  said  the 
other  ;  but,  when  you  insulted  me,  I  was  a  caterpillar.  So  let  me  give  you 
this  piece  of  advice :  Never  insult  the  humble,  as  they  may  one  day  become 
yctir  superiors. 

Exercises, 

What  subject  can  be  illustrated  by  an  allegory  with  the  following  hints 
or  aids  ? 


136  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Aids. — A  hill  with  multitudes  ascending. 

The  tenaptations  assailing  those  who  are  endeavoring  to  ascend  it 
Thfl  temple  on  the  top  of  the  hill. 
Th«  failure  of  many  who  attempt  to  reach  it. 
The  labors  of  those  who  do  finally  succeed —  tlieir  success  and  hap 
piness. 

What  subject,  by  an  allegory  with  the  following  ? 

Aids.  —  A  wide  sea  or  ocean. 

Vessels  of  various  kinds  variously  decked. 

Their  similar  destination  for  the  same  port. 

The  various  objects  of  their  several  pursuits  on  the  voyage 

The  straight  and  direct  course  kept  by  one  single  vessel. 

The  wreck  or  capture,  or  distress  of  the  other  vessels. 

The  safe  arrival  of  the  vessel  which  kept  the  direct  course. 

What  subject  by  an  allegoiy  with  the  following  1 

Aids. — A  foot  race. 

The  preparations  of  the  competitors. 
The  rewards  offered  to  the  victors. 
The  influence  of  those  rewards  on  their  exertions. 
The  course  of  the  unsuccessful  competitors.  » 

The  success  of  the  victorious  one,  and  the  modes  in  which  it  was 
obtained. 


XLIV. 
APOLOGUE  AND  FABLE. 

An  apologue  is  a  sort  of  allegorical  fiction,  from  which  a 
separate  meaning  or  moral  lesson  may  be  drawn.  It  is,  in 
fact,  but  another  name  for  a  fable,  in  which  animals,  vegeta- 
bles, stocks  and  stones,  speak  and  act  as  monitors  to  mankind. 

An  apologue,  or  fable,  differs  from  a  tale,  in  being  Avrittcn  expressly 
for  the  sake  of  tlic  moral.     If  there  be  no  moral,  there  is  no  fable  * 

A  parable  is  a  fable,  but  is  more  generally  used  to  denominate  those 
Rjlcgorioal  talcs  in  Scripture,  which  were  introduced  for  tlie  purpose  of 
illustrating  some  truth  to  which  thcv  have  a  simihtude.  Such  is  that  of 
•'The  Prodigal  Son,"  "The  Sower,"  "  The  Ten  Virgins." 


♦  The  word/able  is  used  here  in  a  confined  sense,  for,  generally  speaking 
all  literary  fabricationft  are  fables.  There  are  few  moaern  fables  that  are 
Bufhciontly  concise.  Those  of  Gay  often  lengthen  into  tales,  or  lose  them 
•elves  iu  allegory. 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  137 

An  apolDgue  differs  from  a  parable  in  this :  the  parable  is  drawn  from 
events  which  pass  among  mankind,  and  is  therefore  supported  by  proba- 
bility ;  an  apologue  may  be  founded  on  supposed  actions  of  brutes,  or 
inanimate  things,  and  therefore  does  not  require  to  be  supported  by 
probability.    JEsop's  "  Fables  "  are  good  examples  of  apologues. 

APOLOGUE. 

Sicily  addressed  Neptune  praying  to  be  rejoined  to  Italy :  "  You  are 
foolish,"  answered  the  god,  "  if  you  do  not  know  how  much  better  it  is  to 
be  a  small  head,  than  a  great  foot,"  * 

Example. 

FABLE. 

The  Bdly  and  the  Members. 

In  former  days,  when  the  Belly  and  the  other  parts  of  the  body  enjoyed 
the  faculty  of  speech,  and  had  separate  views  and  designs  of  their  own 
each  part,  it  seems,  in  particular  for  himself  and  in  the  name  of  the 
whole,  took  exceptions  at  the  conduct  of  the  Belly,  and  were  resolved  to 
grant  him  supplies  no  longer.  They  said  they  thought  it  very  hard,  that 
be  should  lead  an  idle,  good-for-nothing  life,  spending  and  squandering 
uway  upon  his  ungodly  self  all  the  fruits  of  their  labor ;  and  that,  in  short, 
thev  were  resolved  for  the  future  to  strike  off  his  allowance  and  let  him 
shift;  for  himself  as  well  as  he  could.  The  Hands  protested  that  they 
would  not  lift  up  a  Finger  to  keep  him  from  starving ;  and  the  Mouth 
wished  he  might  never  speak  again,  if  he  took  the  least  bit  of  nourish- 
ment for  him  as  long  as  he  lived ;  "  and,"  said  the  Teeth,  "  may  we  be 
rotted,  if  ever  we  chew  a  morsel  for  him  for  the  future."  This  solemn 
league  and  covenant  was  kept  as  long  as  any  thing  of  that  kind  can  be 
kept ;  which  was  until  each  of  the  rebel  members  pined  away  to  skin 
and  bone,  and  could  hold  out  no  longer.  Then  they  found  there  was 
no  doing  without  the  Belly,  and  that,  as  idle  and  insignificant  as  he 
seemed,  he  contributed  as  much  to  the  maintenance  and  welfai-e  of  the 
other  parts,  as  they  did  to  his. 

Application,  or  Moral. 

This  fable  was  related  by  Menenius  Agrippa  to  the  Romans,  when 
they  revolted  against  their  rulers.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  the  fable  was 
applied,  for,  if  the  branches  and  members  of  a  community  refuse  the 
government  that  aid  which  its  necessities  require,  the  whole  must  per- 
ish together.  Every  man's  enjoyment  of  the  products  of  his  own  daily 
labor  depends  upon  the  government's  being  maintained  in  a  condition 

*  Italy,  in  its  shape,  resembles  a  6oot.  The  point  in  this  apolowie  con 
lists  in  the  allusion  to  the  form  of  the  country. 

12* 


138  AIUS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  ^v 

to  defend  and  secure  him  in  it.  The  fable  will  apply  with  equal  force 
to  the  murmurs  of  the  ]:)Oor  against  tlie  rich.  If  there  were  no  rich  to 
consume  the  products  of  the  labors  of  the  poor,  none  by  whom  public 
charity  might  "  keep  her  channels  full,"  the  poor  would  derive  but  littlp 
fruit  iroffi  their  labor. 


XLV. 

RIDDLE,  OR  ENIGMA 

An  enigma,  or  riddle,  is  an  obscurp  speech,  or  saying,  m 
a  kind  of  allegorical  form,  and  written  either  in  prose  or 
verse,  designed  to  exercise  the  mind  in  discovering  a  hidden 
meaning ;  or,  it  is  a  dark  saying,  in  which  some  known  thing 
is  concealed  under  obscure  language  wliich  is  proposed  to  be 
guessed. 

Example. 

'T  was  whispered  in  heaven,  't  was  muttered  in  hell, 
And  Echo  caught  faintly  the  sound  as  it  fell : 
On  the  confines  of  earth  'twas  permitted  to  rest. 
And  the  depths  of  the  ocean  its  presence  confessed, 
'T  will  be  foinid  in  the  sphere,  when  't  is  riven  asunder, 
Be  seen  in  the  lightning,  and  heard  in  the  thunder. 
*T  was  allotted  to  man  with  his  earliest  breath. 
Attends  at  his  birth,  and  awaits  him  in  death ; 
It  presides  o'er  his  happiness,  honor,  and  health, 
Is  the  prop  of  his  house,  and  the  end  of  his  wealth. 
Without  it  the  soldier,  the  seaman,  may  roam. 
But  woe  to  the  wretch  who  expels  it  from  home. 
In  the  whispers  of  conscience  its  voice  will  be  found. 
Nor  e'en  in  the  whirlwind  of  passion  be  drowned  • 
*T  will  not  soften  the  heart,  and  though  deaf  to  the  ear, 
'T  will  make  it  acutely  and  instantly  hear. 
But  in  shade  let  it  rest,  like  a  delicate  flower. 
Or  breathe  on  it  softly,  —  it  dies  in  an  hour.  * 

*  The  thing  described  or  hidden  in  this  enigma,  and  which  is  propoied 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  139 

Comparisons,  proverbial  speeches,  parables,  and  fables,  may  be  easily 
converted  the  one  into  the  other.  Thus,  "  The  miser  is  like  the  do»  in 
the  manger,  who  would  neither  eat  the  hay  himself,  nor  suffer  the  hun- 
gry ox  to  eat  it."  This  comparison  may  be  converted  into  a  fable  as 
follows :  "  A  dog  was  lying  upon  a  manger  full  of  hay.  An  ox,  being 
hungry,  came  near,  and  offered  to  eat  of  the  hay ;  but  the  envious,  ill- 
natured  cur,  getting  up  and  snarling  at  him,  would  not  suffer'him  to 
touch  it.  Upon  which,  the  ox  in  the  bitterness  of  his  heart,  exclaimed, 
A  curse  light  on  thee,  for  a  malicious  wretch,  who  will  neither  eat  the 
hay  thyself,  nor  suffer  others  who  are  hungiy  to  do  it."  A  proverb  may 
be  extracted  from  this  fable :  "  The  envious  man  distresses  himself  in 
the  consideration  of  the  prosperity  of  others." 


XL  VI. 
CIIARADE.* 

A  charade  is  a  syllabic  enigma ;  that  is,  an  enigma,  the 
subject  of  which  is  a  name  or  word,  that  is  proposed  for 


to  be  guessed,  is  the  letter  H.     The  letter  M  U  concealed  in  the  followinj; 
Latin  enigma  by  an  unknown  author  of  very  aucient  date  : 
"  Ego  sum  principium  mundi  et  finis  seculorum  ; 
Ego  sum  trinus  et  unus,  et  tamen  non  sum  Deus." 
The  letter  E  is  thus  enigmatically  described : 
"  The  beginning  of  eternity, 
The  end  of  time  and  space, 
The  beginning  of  every  end, 
And  the  end  of  every  place." 
rhe  celebrated  riddle  of  the  Sphinx,  in  classic  story,  was  this :  "  "What 
animal  walks  on  four  legs  in  the  morning,  on  two  at  noon,  and  on  three  in 
the  evening?  " 

The  answer  is  Man^  who,  in  infancy  or  the  morning  of  life,  walks  or 
creeps  on  his  hands  and  feet,  at  the  noon  of  life  he  -siralks  erect,  and  in  the 
evening  of  liis  days,  or  in  old  age,  supports  his  infirmities  on  a  staff. 

*  Nearly  allied  to  the  enigma  and  charade  are  the  rebus,  the  paronomasia 
or  pun,  and  the  "low  conundrum."  [See  Catachresis.]  They  are  mere 
plays  upon  words,  and  are  scarcely  worthy  of  consideration  among  the  de- 
partments of  grave  composition.  The  liebus  approaches,  or  rather  is,  in 
fact,  picture  writing,  or  a  representation  of  words  by  things  It  is  an  enig 
matical  representation  of  some  name,  by  using  figures  or  pictures  instead 
of  words.  The  word  is  from  the  Latin  language,  and  literally  signifies,  6y 
things.  Thus  a  gallant  in  love  with  a  woman  naniod  Rose  Hill,  painted 
on  the  border  of  his  gown  a  rose,  a  hill,  an  eye,  Cupid  or  Love,  and  a  rvell, 
which  reads    *  Eose  Hill  I  love  welU^     On  a  monumental  tablet  In   th'a 


140  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMTOSITION. 

discovery  from  an  enigmatical  description  of  its  several  syl 
lables,  taken  separately,  as  so  many  individual  words,  and 
afterwards  combined.     A  charade  may  be  in  prose  or  verse. 


vicinity*  erected  for  a  family  of  the  name  of  Vassal,  there  is  the  represen- 
tation of  a  vase  or  nip  (in  Latin,  vas),  and  the  sun  (in  Latin,  sot),  thus 
forming  the  name  "  Vassoiy  This  is  similar  to  one  form  of  the  hieroglyph 
ics  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

The  Paronomasia,  or  Pun,  is  a  verbal  allusion  in  cossequence  of  words 
of  similar  sound,  or  of  the  same  orthography,  having  different  meanings ; 
or  it  ip  an  expression  in  which  two  different  applications  of  a  word  present 
an  odd  or  ludicrous  idea.  It  is  generally  esteemed  a  low  species  of  wit. 
Thus,  man  having  a  tall  wife  named  Experience  observed  that  "  He  had 
by  lon^  experience  proved  the  blessings  of  a  married  life."  Another  hav- 
ing unc ertaken  to  make  a  pun  upon  any  given  s^ibject,  when  it  was  pro- 
posed tnat  he  should  make  one  on  the  King,  replied,  that  "  the  King  is  not 
a  subject.    That  Majesty,  if  stripped  of  its  externals,  would  remain  ajestJ''' 

Puns  are  sometimes  expressed  in  verse,  and  appear  among  collections  of 
Epigrams.    (See  Epigram.)    For  example, 

"  I  cannot  move,"  yon  clamorous  beggar  cries, 
"  Nor  sit,  nor  stand ; "  if  he  says  true,n.Q  lies. 


Again: 


When  dressed  for  the  evening,  the  girls  now-a-days 
Scarce  an  atom  of  dress  on  them  leave  ; 
Nor  blame  them ;  for  what  is  an  evening  dress 
But  a  dress  that  is  suited  for  Eve  ? 


Conundrums  are  the  lowest  species  of  verbal  witticisms,  and  are  in  general 
a  mere  play  upon  the  soiauls  of  words,  without  reference  to  their  significa- 
tion. They  are  generally  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  question,  with  an  an- 
swer. Thus  :  When  is  a  ship  not  a  ship  ?  Answer.  When  it  is  a-ground, 
or  when  it  is  a-Jloat.  When  is  a  door  not  a  door  ?  Answer.  When  it  is 
a-jar.  What  part  of  an  animal  is  his  elegy  ?  Answer.  His  LEG.  If 
vou  were  in  an  upper  chamber  of  a  house  on  fire,  and  the  stairs  were  a  way, 
how  would  you  get  down  ?  Ansiver.  Bv  the  stairs.  If  a  demon  had  lost 
his  tail,  where  would  he  go  to  have  it  replaced  ?  Answer.  To  the  place 
where  they  retail  bad  spirits.  If  a  hungry  man,  on  coming  home  to  dinner, 
should  find  notliing  but  a  beet  on  the  table,  what  common  exclamation 
would  he  utter  ?     Answer.     That  beat 's  all. 

Such  plays  upon  the  sounds  of  words,  without  reference  to  their  significa- 
tion, however  they  may  amuse  a  vacant  hour,  or  exercise  the  ingenuity 
of  those  to  whom  they  are  proposed,  can  bo  considered  in  no  other  light 
than  as  undignified,  not  to  say  childish  divei-sions. 

Of  the  same  character  may  those  witticisms  be  considered,  commonly 
denominated  jests  m\^  jokes.  It  would  be  futile  to  attempt  specimens  of 
either  of  these  kinds  of  pleasantries.  They  are  so  various  in  their  nature, 
that  no  specinions  can  be  given,  which  would  convey  any  thing  like  a  clear 
idea  of  their  pncrul  character.  It  may  be  sufficient  to  observe,  in  gencnU, 
that  the  jest  is  directed  at  the  object ;  the  joke  is  practised  with  the  person, 
or  on  the  person.  One  attempts  to  make  a  thing  laughnble,  or  ridiculous, 
Dy  jesting  about  it,  or  treating  it  in  a  jesting  manner;  one  attempts  to  ex 
cite  good  humor  in  others  or  indulge  it  in  one's  self  by  joking  with  them. 
Jests  are  therefore  soUlom  liarmlcss ;  jokes  are  frequently  allowable.  Noth 
ing  is  more  esusy  to  be  made,  nor  more  contemptible  when  made,  than  a 
lest  upon  u  serious  or  sacred  subject.  "  Ne  lude  cum  sacris,"  is  a  maxia 
which  cannot  be  too  sU'ongly  impressed  on  every  speaker  and  writer. 


AIDS   TO   ]ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  141 


JExamples, 

Myjirst,  if  you  do,  will  increase, 
My  second  will  keep  you  from  heaven, 
My  wfiole,  such  is  human  caprice. 
Is  seldomer  taken  than  given. 

What  is  that  which  God  never  sees,  kings  see  but  seldom, 
akfd  which  we  see  every  day  ? 
Answer,  an  equal. 


XLvn. 

HYPERBOLE. 

A  writer,  under  the  influence  of  strong  excitement,  some- 
times uses  extravagant  expressions,  which  he  does  not  intend 
shall  be  taken  literally.  Such  expressions  are  called 
hyperbole. 

Example  1st. 

A  rescued  land 
Sent  up  a  shout  of  victory  from  the  field, 
That  rocked  her  ancient  mountains. 

Example  '2d, 

The  iron  of  itself,  though  heat  red-hot, 
Approaching  near  these  eyes,  would  drink  my  tears* 
And  quench  its  fiery  indignation, 
Even  in  the  matter  of  mme  innocence. 
Nay,  after  that,  consume  away  in  rust. 
But  for  containing  fire  to  harm  mine  eye. 

Example  3d 

I  found  her  on  the  floor 
In  all  the  storm  of  grief,  yel  beautiful^ 


142  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Pouring  out  tears  at  such  a  lavish  rate, 

Tlmt,  were  the  world  on  fire,  they  might  have  drowned 

The  wrath  of  Heaven,  and  quenched  the  mighty  ruin.* 

Example  4th. 

There  has  not  been  a  sound  to-day. 

To  break  the  calm  of  nature, 
Nor  motion,  I  might  almost  say, 

Of  life,  .or  living  creature  ;  — 
Of  waving  bough,  or  warbling  bird. 

Or  cattle  faintly  lowing ; 
I  could  have  half  believed  I  heard 

The  leaves  and  blossoms  growing. 

JSxample  5th. 

-And  there  are  many  other  things  which  Jesus  did,  thf 
which,  if  they  should  be  written  every  one,  I  suppose  thai 
even  the  world  itself  would  not  contain  the  books  that  should 
be  written.  —  [_St.  John's  Gospel,  last  verse.'] 

Hyperbole  or  Exaggeration  is  a  remarkable  feature  of 
Eastern  poetry.  Mr.  Moore,  in  his  Lalla  Rookh,  has  some 
extravagant  instances,  which  may  be  pardoned  in  that  work, 
written  as  it  was  in  imitation  of  the  Eastern  style,  but  they 
should  not  be  exhibited  as  objects  of  imitation.  The  following 
is  one  of  the  instances  from  Lalla  Rookh : 

"  Yet,  one  relief  this  glance  of  former  years 
Brought,  mingled  with  its  pain,  tears,  floods  of  tears, 
Long  frozen  at  her  heart,  but  now  like  rills 
Let  loose  in  Spring  time  from  the  snowy  hills, 
And  gushing  warm,  after  a  sleep  of  frost, 
Through  valleys  where  their  flow  had  long  been  lost." 

Hyperbole  ought  to  be  very  carefully  as  well  as  sparingly 
used  ;  for  it  is  requisite  that  the  mind  of  the  hearer,  as  weU 
as  that  of  the  speaker,  should  be  strongly  excited,  else  it 
degenerates  into  Bombast.  It  is  usually  tlie  flash  of  an  over- 
heated imagination,  and  is  seldom  consistent  with  the  cold 
canons  of  criticism.  —  ^See  Booth's  Principles^  p.  188.] 

*  The  reverse  of  Hyperbole  or  Exagj^ration,  is  Liptote?  or  Diminution^ 
which  is  a  figure  bv  «.iich,  in  seeming  to  lessen,  we  increase  the  force  of 
the  expression.  Thus,  when  we  say,  "The  man  is  no  foci,"  we  are  under- 
stooil  to  assert  that  he  is  wise.  "I  cannot  praise  such  conduct,'  mean* 
that  I  doap^se  it. 


AIDS    TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  143 

XLvni. 

APOSTROPHE. 

Apostrophe  is  the  turning  off  from  the  regular  course  of 
ehe  subject,  to  address  some  person  or  thing,  real  or  imagin 
■ary,  living  or  dead. 

Apostrophe  is  generally  used  to  address  Hying  objects  that  are  absent, 
—  or  dead  objects  with  which  we  were  familiar  while  they  were  in  life. 
Some  of  its  boldest  efforts,  however,  exhaust  the  essence  of  personification, 
and  call  up  and  address  the  inanimate  objects  of  nature. 

Apostrophes  addressed  to  the  wiaawMion  are  frequently  extended  to  a 
considerable  length;  while  those  addressed  to  the  passions  must  be  short 
to  correspond  with  the  frame  of  the  mind  in  which  they  are  made. 

Example  Isi 

APOSTROPHE    OF   PASSION. 

Oh  pardon  me,  thou  piece  of  bleeding  earth. 
That  I  am  meek  and  gentle  with  thy  butchers ! 
Thou  art  the  ruins  of  the  noblest  man 
That  ever  lived  in  the  tide  of  time. 

Example  2d. 

APOSTROPHE    OF   I3IAGINATI0N.  * 

()  thou  Parnassus  !  whom  I  now  survey, 

Not  in  the  phrensy  of  a  dreamer's  eye, 
Not  in  the  fabled  landscape  of  a  lay. 

But  soaring,  snow-clad,  through  thy  native  sky 

In  the  wild  pomp  of  mountain  majesty ! 
What  marvel  tliat  I  thus  essay  to  sing  ? 

The  humblest  of  thy  pilgrims,  passing  by. 
Would  gladly  woo  thine  Echoes  with  his  string, 
Th  )ugh  from  thy  heights  no  more  one  Muse  shall  wave  hr^r 

wing. 

*  This  Apostrophe  is  the  production  of  Lord  Byron,  -vi-ho  has  also  presented 
another  splendid  example  of  the  same  kind,  in  his  Apostroplje  to  the  Ocean. 
Our  own  Percival,  in  bis  Apostrophe  to  the  Sun,  affords  another  example. 
which  would  do  honor  to  th:e  literature  of  any  a^e  or  nation. 


144  AIDS    TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  apostrophe  is,  on  the  whole,  a  fi^e  too  pas- 
sionate to  gain  much  admittance  into  any  species  of  composition,  except 
poetry  and  oratory. 


XLIX 

INTERROGATION. 

The  unfigured  and  literal  use  of  interrogation  is  to  ask  a 
question ;  but  when  men  are  strongly  moved,  they  naturally 
put  into  the  form  of  a  question  whatever  they  would  aflirm  or 
deny  with  great  earnestness.  Thus:  Canst  thou  draw  out 
Leviathan  with  a  hook,  or  his  tongue  with  a  cord  that  thou 
lettest  down.*  —  He  that  planted  the  ear,  shall  he  not  hear. 

Interrogation  gives  life  and  spirit  to  discourse.  It  may  be  used  to  rouse 
and  waken  the  hearers  —  sometimes  to  command  wth  great  emphasis, 
and  sometimes  to  denote  plaintive  passion.  Cicero  uses  it  >vith  great 
effect  in  his  oration  against  Cataline,  which  he  thus  commences  : 

"  How  long  Cataline  will  you  abuse  our  patience  1  Do  you  not  per- 
ceive that  your  designs  are  discovered  1 "  &c. 

Example, 

Can  storied  urn,  or  animated  bust, 
Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath  ? 
Can  honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust, 
Or  flattery  soothe  the  dull,  cold  ear  of  death  ? 


L. 

REPETITION. 


Repetition  seizes  some  emphatical  word,  or  phrase,  and,  to 
mark  its  importance,  makes  it  recur  frequently  in  the  same 

*  Tho  bcwk  of  Jirt>  abounds  in  beontiful  instanoei  of  this  ftRur*. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  145 

sentence.  It  is  significant  of  contrast  and  energy.  It  also 
marks  passion,  which  wishes  to  dwell  on  the  object  by  which 
it  is  excited. 

JSkcamph  1st. 

"  Weep  not,  oh  Love  I "  she  cries,  "  to  see  me  bleed  — 
Thee,  Grertrude's  sad  survivor,  thee  alone  — 
Heaven's  peace  commiserate ;  for  scarce  I  heed 
These  wounds ;  —  yet  thee  to  leave  is  death,  is  death  indeed. 

Example  2d. 

By  foreign  hands  thy  dying  eyes  were  closed. 
By  foreign  hands  thy  decent  limbs  cemposed, 
By  foreign  hands  thy  humble  grave  adorned. 
By  strangers  honored  and  by  strangers  mourned. 

Example  3d, 

He  sung  Darius,  great  and  good, 
By  too  severe  a  fate. 
Fallen,  fallen,  fallen,  fallen. 
Fallen  from  his  high  estate,  and  weltering  in  his  blood. 


LL 


EXCI4AKATION. 

fcadamations  are  the  effect  of  strong  emotions  of  the  mind ; 
such  ae  surprise,  admiration,  joy,  grief,  and  the  like. 

Example  1st. 

Oh  Liberty !  oh  sound  once  dehgbtful  to  every  Eoman  ear ! 
Oh  sacred  privilege  of  Roman  citizenship !  —  once  sacred,  now 
trampled  upon. 

13 


i4t)  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMFOSITIOK. 


Example  '2d. 

Oh  time  !  time !  it  is  fit  thou  shouldst  thus  strike,  thy  mur- 
derer to  the  heart !  How  art  thou  fled  forever  I  A  month  ! 
Oh  for  a  single  week  !  I  ask  not  for  years  !  though  an  age 
were  too  little  for  the  much  I  have  to  do  I 


LH. 

VISION. 


Vision,  another  figure  of  speech,  proper  only  in  animated 
and  warm  compositions,  is  produced,  when,  instead  of  relating 
something  that  is  past,  we  use  the  present  tense  of  the  verb, 
and  describe  the  action  or  event  as  actually  now  in  sight 

In  tragedy,  vision  is  the  language  of  the  most  violent  passion  which 
conjures  up  spectres,  and  approaches  to  insanity. 

Example  IsL 

f  Cicero,  in  his  fourth  oration  against  Cataline,  pictures  to  his  mii>d  th« 
consummation  of  the  conspiracy,  as  follows :] 

I  seem  to  myself  to  behold  this  city,  the  ornament  of  the 
earth,  and  the  capital  of  all  nations,  suddenly  involved  in  one 
conflagration.  I  see  before  me  the  slaughtered  heaps  of  citi- 
zens, lying  unburied  in  the  midst  of  their  ruined  country. 
The  furious  countenance  of  Cethegus  rises  to  my  view,  while, 
with  a  savage  joy,  he  is  triumphing  in  your  miseries. 

Example  2d, 

Methought  I  heard  a  a  voice 

Cry,  Sleep  no  more  I     Macbeth  doth  murder  sleep. 

Example  Sd, 

Avaunt  and  quit  my  sightl 
Let  the  earth  hide  iheo  ;  thy  Iwnes  are  marrowleae ; 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSTlON.  147 

Thy  blood  is  cold  ;  thou  hast  no  speculation 
In  those  eyes  which  thou  dost  stare  with. 
Hence,  horrible  shadow ;  unreal  mockery,  hence ! 


LHL 

CLIMAX. 

Climax  consists  in  an  artful  exaggeration  of  all  the  circum- 
stances of  some  object  or  action,  which  we  wish  to  place  in  a 
strong  light.  It  operates  by  a  gradual  rise  of  one  circum- 
stance above  another,  till  our  idea  is  raised  to  the  highest 
pitch. 

A  speaker  makes  an  assertion  which  he  feels  is  not  strong  enough  for 
his  thought;  —  he  adds  another,  and  another,  until  he  reaches  that  point 
which  his  mind  contemplates  to  be  sufficiently  expressive ;  and  then  the 
climax  (or  climbing)  ends. 

Example  1st. 

Boisterous  in  speech,  in  action  prompt  and  bold, 
He  buys,  he  sells,  he  steals,  he  kills  for  gold. 

Example  2d. 

[The  following  is  part  of  an  address,  in  the  case  of  a  woman  who  was 
accused  of  murdering  her  own  child.] 

Gentlemen,  if  one  man  had  any  how  slain  another ;  if  an  adversary  had 
killed  his  opposer ;  or  a  woman  occasioned  the  death  of  her  enemy ;  even 
these  criminals  would  have  been  capitally  punished  by  the  Cornelian  law. 
But,  if  this  guiltless  infant,  who  could  make  no  enemy,  had  been  mur- 
dered by  its  own  nurse ;  what  punishment  would  not  the  mother  have 
demanded  1  With  what  cries  and  exclamations  would  she  have  stunned 
your  ears  ?  What  shall  we  say,  then,  when  a  woman,  guilty  of  homicide ; 
a  mother,  of  the  murder  of  her  innocent  child,  hath  comprised  all  those 
misdeeds  in  one  single  crime  ;  a  crime,  in  its  own  nature  detestable  ;  in  a 
woman  prodigious  ;  in  a  mother  incredible ;  and  perpetrated  against  one, 
whose  age  called  for  compassion ;  whose  near  relation  claimed  affection ; 
and  whose  innocence  deserved  the  highest  favor  1  * 

♦  Such  ragular  Climaxes,  however,  though  they  have  great  beauty,  yrA 


148  AIDS    TO    ENtJLISU    COMPOSITION. 

Example  Sd. 

The  cloud-capt  towers,  the  gorgeous  palar^a. 
The  solemn  temple,  the  great  globe  itself, 
Yea,  all  that  it  inhabits,  shall  dissolve, 
And,  like  the  baseless  fabric  of  a  vision, 
Leave  not  a  wreck  belund. 

Example  4th. 

When  we  have  practised  good  actions  awhile  they  beconfe  easy  5  and 
when  they  are  easy,  we  begin  to  take  pleasure  in  them  ;  and  when  they 
please  us,  we  do  them  frequently ;  and  by  frequency  of  acts  they  grow 
mto  a  habit. 

Example  5th. 

And  besides  this,  giving  all  diligence,  add  to  your  faith,  virtue ;  and  to 
virtue,  knowledge ;  and  to  knowledge,  temperance ;  and  to  temperance, 
patience ;  and  to  patience,  godliness ;  and  to  godliness,  brotherly  kind- 
ness ;  and  to  brotherly  kindness,  charity 

Example  6th. 

It  is  a  crime  to  put  a  Roman  citizen  in  bonds ;  it  is  the  height  of  guilt 
to  scourge  him  ;  little  less  than  parricide  to  put  him  to  death ;  what  name, 
then,  shall  I  give  to  the  act  of  crucifying  him  ? 

at  the  same  time  have  the  appearance  of  art  and  study ;  and,  therefore, 
though  thev  may  be  admitted  into  formal  harangues,  yet  they  are  not  the 
language  of  passion,  which  seldom  proceeds  by  steps  so  regular. 
Climax  and  Antithesis  are  sometimes  united,  as  in  the  following 

Example. 

Pride  still  is  aiming  at  the  blest  abodes, 
Men  would  be  angols,  angels  would  be  gods ; 
Aspiring  to  be  gods,  if  angels  fell, 
Aspiring  to  be  angels,  men  rebel. 

Climax  is  nearlv  related  to  Hj-perbole,  and  differs  from  it  chiefly  in  degree. 
The  purpose  of  Ifypcrbolo  is  to  exult  our  conceptions  beyond  the  truth:  of 
Climax,  to  elevate  our  ideas  of  the  truth  itself,  by  a  series  of  circumstances, 
iLsccnding  one  above  another  in  respect  of  importance,  and  all  pointing  to- 
ward the  same  object.  This  figure,  when  properly  introduced  and  displayed, 
•ffords  a  vcrj'  sensible  plea««ure.  It  accords  with  our  disposition  to  enlarge 
our  conceptions  of  any  object  that  we  contemplate ;  it  aflbrds  a  gratification 
similar  to  what  we  receive  on  ascending  an  eminence,  situated  in  the  centre 
of  a  rich  and  varied  landscape,  where  every  step  we  proceed  presents  • 
jfrander  and  more  extensive  prospect. 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  149 

LIV. 

ANTICLIMAX. 

The  descent  from  great  things  to  small  is  termed  anti- 
climax. It. is  the  opposite  of  climax,  and  is  found  principally 
in  ludicrous  compositions. 

Examples. 

1.  And  thou,  Dalhousie,  the  great  god  of  war, 
Lieutenant-colonel  to  the  Earl  of  Mar. 

2.  Under  the  tropic  is  our  language  spoke, 
And  part  of  Flanders  hath  received  our  yoke. 


LV. 

ALLUSION. 

Allusion  is  that  figure  by  which  some  word  or  phrase  m  a 
sentence  calls  to  mind,  as  if  accidentally,  another  similar  or 
analogous  subject. 

Allusions,  though  diiferent  in  form  from  comparisons,  are  of  the  samo 
nature,  and  their  introduction  depends  on  similar  principles,  Like  com- 
parisons, they  are  illustrative,  and  give  us  pleasure  from  the  discovery  of 
unexpected  resemblances,  or  coincidences  of  thought  or  expression.  In 
making  allusions,  care  should  always  be  taken,  that  what  is  alluded  to 
Bhould  be  generally  known.* 

Examples. 

1.  You  cannot  be  to  them  "Vich  Ian  Vohr,"  and  these 


*  The  student  who  would  see  this  figure  beautifully  illustrated,  is  ra 
ferred  to  Newman's  Rhetoric. 
13* 


150  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

three  magic  words  are  the  only  "  open  sesame  "  to  their  feel- 
ings and  sympathies. 

iHere  the  words  "  open  sesame  "  recall  to  mind  the  charm  by  which  th« 
bers'  dungeon,  in  the  Arabian  tale,  *  was  opened.] 

2.  There  are  many  religionists  of  the  present  day  whu 
make  it  their  shibhokth  to  be  able  to  tell  the  precise  moment 
when  the  heart  was  converted  to  God.  f 

3.  I  was  surrounded  with  difficulties,  and  possessed  no  cbie 
by  which  I  could  effect  my  escape.  % 

[Exercises  may  readily  be  framed  by  the  student  who  attentively  con 
lioers  the  close  remblance  of  this  figure  to  Simile  or  CJomparison.] 


LVL 

ntONY. 


Irony  is  the  intentional  use  of  words  which  express  a  sense 
contrary  to  that  which  the  writer  or  speaker  means  to  convey, 
as  when  we  say  of  one  unskilled  in  grammar,  "  Admirable 
grammarian ! " 

When  irony  is  so  strong  as  to  be  termed  bitter  or  cutting, 
it  is  Sarcasm.  Irony  turns  things  into  ridicule,  in  a  peculiar 
manner ;  it  consists  in  laughing  at  an  individual,  under  the 
disguise  of  appearing  to  praise  or  speak  well  of  him. 

The  proper  subjects  of  irony  arc  vices  and  follies  of  all  kinds ;  and  this 
mode  of  exposing  them  is  f)ftcn  more  effectual  than  serious  rcasoninc^. 
The  figure  is,  however,  st^metimcs  used  on  tlie  most  solemn  occasions,  as 
will  be  seen  by  the  following : 

Example  IsL 

Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  a  god ;  either  he  is  talking,  or  he  is  pur- 

*  The  Forty  Thieves. 

t  See  the  Hook  of  .Indies,  chapter  xii.,  verses  5,  6. 

t  Sec  the  8tory  of  Anndne,  in  Lempriere's  Classical  Dictionary.  In  the 
ttse  of  this  figure  (Alhisjon),  it  may  be  observed  llmt  the  subject  to  which 
illusion  is  made,  should  be  readily  parceived,  and  that  it  recompense,  by  its 
oeauty  or  its  utility,  the  digression  necossarilv  made  in  introducing  it 


AFDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  151 

suing,  or  he  is  on  a  journey,  or  peradventure  he  sleepeth,  and 
must  be  .awakened. 

See  1  Kings,  chapter  xviii.,  verse  27. 

Example  2d, 

And  Job  answered  and  said,  No  doubt  ye  are  the  people, 
and  wisdom  shall  die  with  you. 

Example  of  Sarcasm. 

In  the  n<xme  of  common  sense,  why  should  the  Duke  of 
Bedford  chink  that  none  but  of  the  House  of  Russell  are  en- 
titled to  the  favor  of  the  crown  ?  Why  should  he  imagine, 
that  no  king  of  England  has  been  capable  of  judging  of  merit 
but  Kjng  Henry  the  Eighth  ?  Indeed,  he  will  pardon  me ; 
he  is  a  little  mistaken :  all  virtue  did  not  end  in  the  first  Earl 
of  Bedford ;  all  discernment  did  not  lose  its  vision  when  his 
Creator  closed  his  eyes.  Let  him  remit  his  rigor  on  the  dis- 
proportion between  merit  aiid  reward  in  others,  and  they  will 
make  no  inquiry  into  the  origin  of  his  fortune.  They  will  re- 
gard with  much  more  satisfaction,  as  he  will  contemplate  with 
infinitely  more  advantage,  whatever  his  pedigree  has  been 
dulcified,  by  an  exposure  to  the  influence  of  heaven  in  a  long 
flow  of  generations,  from  the  hard,  acidulous,  metallic  tincture 
of  the  spring.  It  is  little  to  bt.  doubted,  that  several  of  his 
forefathers,  in  that  long  series,  have  degenerated  into  honor 
and  virtue. 


Lvin. 

AIXITERATION. 

Alliteration  is  the  repetition  of  the  same  letter  at  the  begin 
ning  of  two  or  more  words  immediately  succeeding  each  other, 
or  at  short  intervals ;  as,  bug-bear,  sea-sick,  and  the  /  and  g 
m  the  following  line  : 

Fields  ever  fresh,  and  groves  for  ever  green. 


152  AID 3   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITIO?f. 

And  the  /  in  the  following :  Love  laughs  at  locksmiths. 

Tbe  return  of  such  sounds,  if  not  too  frequent,  is  aj^eeable  .to  the  ear 
because  the  succeutliug  impression  is  made  with  less  etiort  than  that  which 
precedes. 

Alliteration,  as  well  as  rhyme,  is  useful  as  an  aid  to  the 
memory.  Hence  proverbs  have  generally  one  or  the  other 
and  sometimes  both  of  these  auxiliaries.     Thus : 

Birds  of  a  feather 

Flock  together. 

Fast  bind, 

Fast  find. 

The  following  are  remarkable  instances  of  alliteratioji : 

The  lordly  lion  leaves  his  lonely  lair. 

Begot  by  butchers,  but  by  oishops  bred,  ' 

How  high  his  honor  holds  his  haughty  head. 

How  sweetly  slow  the  liquid  lay 
In  holy  hallelujahs  rose ! 

Let  lords  and  ladies  laugh  and  sing 
As  loudly  and  as  light ; 
We  beggars,  too,  can  dance  and  fling 
Dull  care  a  distant  flight. 

Approach,  thou,  like  the  rugged  Russian  bear, 
The  anned  rhinoceros,  or  the  Hyrcan  tiger,  &c. 

Round  rugged  rocks,  rude,  ragged  rascals  ran. 

Lean  liquid  lays,  like  lightly  lulling  lakes,  &c. 

These  instances  are  not  presented  as  models  for  imitation,  but  rather  as 
exemplifications  of  the  meaning  of  the  term  alliteration.  It  will  be  suffi 
cient  to  observe,  that  alliterations  at  the  present  day  have  fallen  into  disre 
puto  ;  and  with  good  reason,  lest  the  writer  in  pursuit  of  them  should  be 
tempted  to  sacrifice  sense  to  sound.  Occasionally  introduced,  and  sparing- 
ly used,  they  are  not  perhaps  obnoxious  to  strong  objections.  Karnes,  ni 
his  "  Elements  of  Criticism,*'  says :  *'  Where  two  ideas  are  so  connected  as 
to  require  only  a  copulative,  it  is  pleasant  to  find  a  connexion  in  the  wordy 
that  express  these  iaeas,  were  it  even  so  slight  as  where  both  beg-in  with  the 
tame  letter.  Thus  :  *  The  peacock,  in  all  his  pride,  does  not  display  half 
the  color  that  appears  m  the  garments  of  a  Britisli  lady  when  she  is  dressed 
either  for  a  hall,  or  a  birth-day.^ — Spectator,  No.  2G5.  Again :  '  Had  not  my 
log  of  a  steward  run  away  as  ho  did,  without  making  up  his  accomit^,  ( 
had  still  been  immersed  in  sin  and  seacoal.' — Ibid,  No.  mO. 
'♦ '  My  life's  companion,  and  my  bosom  friend. 

One  faith,  one  fame,  one  fate  shall  both  attend.' "  * 

Th«  following  Is  pretented  as  a  literary  curiosity  : 

ALrilABETICAL   ALLITERATION. 
THB  BDMERB  HILL  MONUURNT  CELBBKATIDM 

Anioricans  arrayed  and  armed  attend ; 
Beside  battuliona  bold,  bright  beauties  blend. 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  158 


Exercises. 

The  student  may  change  the  terms  in  the  following  expressions^  so  aa  to  pre- 
tent  instances  of  alliteration.  A  word  of  similar  meaning  nuuf,  in  each  phraat 
or  sentence,  be  substituted,  so  as  to  exemplify  the  figure. 

The  royal  lion. 

The  songs  of  love. 

The  pride  of  the  sons  of  kings. 

One  belief,  one  fame,  one  destiny  shall  attend  both. 

The  flowing  lays. 

How  the  brilliant  lake  shines. 

His  proud  head  shall  bow. 

The  deceitful  tiger. 

The  heedful  cat. 

He  forsakes  his  solitary  lair. 

By  royal  prelates  commended. 

In  sacred  hallelujahs  listened  to. 

Let  noblemen  and  high-bom  ladies  laugh  and  sing. 

Birds  of  the  same  plumage  assemble  together. 

The  falling  towers  with  curling  ivy  bound. 

Yet  would  the  village  commend  my  wondrous  power. 
And  the  blithe  grandsire  skilled  in  gestic  lore 
Aas  frisked  beneath  the  load  of  fourscore. 


Lvin. 

PARAPHRASE  OR  EXPLANATION. 

A  paraphrase  is  an  explanation  of  some  maxim  or  passagu 
in  a  book  in  a  more  clear  and  ample  manner  than  is  ex 

Chiefs,  clergy,  citizens  conglomerate,— 

Detesting  despots,  —  daring  deeds  debate. 

Each  eye  emblazoned  ensigns  entertain,— 

Flourishing  from  far,  —  fan  freedom's  flame. 

Guards  greeting  guards  grown  grey,  —  guest  greeting    QMt 

High-minded  heroes,  hither,  homeward,  haste; 

Ingenuous  juniors  join  in  jubilee, 

Kith  kenning  kin,  —  kind  knowing  kindred  key. 

Lo,  lengthened  lines  lend  Liberty  liege  love, 

Mixed  masses  marshalled,  Monumentward  move. 

Kote  noble  navies  near ;  —  no  novel  notion ; 

Oft,  our  oppressors  overawed  old  Ocean ; 

Presumptuous  princes,  pristine  patriots,  paled, 

Queen's  quarrel  questing  quotas,  quondam,  quailed 

Kebellion  reused,  revoltmg  ramparts  rose, 

Stout  spirits,  smiting  servile  soldiers,  strove. 

These  thrilling  themes,  to  thousands  truly  told, 
Usurpers'  unjust  usages  unfold. 
Victorious  vassals,  vauntings  vainly  veiled. 
Where,  whilsince,  Webster,  warlike  Warren,  wailed. 

'Xcuse  'xpletives  'xtraqueer  'xpressed. 
Yielding  Yankee  yeoman  zest. 


154  ArD8   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

pressed  in  the  words  of  the  author.  It  is  in  fact  a  translation 
of  the  author's  meaning  into  simpler  language,  accompanied 
with  such  explanations  as  will  serve  to  render  the  passage 
easily  intelligible.  The  author's  words,  therefore,  are  not  so 
strictly  followed  as  his  sense. 

Maxims,  proverbs,*  and  texts  of  Scripture  often  contain  much  mean 
ing  in  few  words.  To  present  them  in  a  clear  light,  and  to  explain  them 
in  all  tlieir  bearings,  is  the  province  of  the  preacher  and  the  didactic 
writer ;  who  thus  calls  in  the  paraphrase  to  their  aid  for  the  benefit  o^ 
illustration.  ^ 

Example  \st. 

"^  sutor  ultra  crepidam" 

"  Let  not  the  shoemaker  go  beyond  his  last."  These  were 
the  words  of  Apelles  to  a  Crispin,  (a  shoemaker)  who 
properly  found  fault  with  an  ill-painted  slipper  in  one  of  the 
pictures  of  Apelles  ;  but,  ascending  to  other  parts,  betrayed 
the  grossest  ignorance.  The  proverb  implies  that  no  man 
should  pass  his  opinion  in  a  province  of  art,  where  he  w 
without  a  qualification. 

Example  2c?. 
Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of  Sicily,  stripped  the  statue  of  Jupi- 
ter of  a  robe  of  massy  gold,  and  substituted  a  cloak  of  wool, 
saying,  Gold  is  too  cold  in  winter,  and  too  heavy  in  summer, 
—  It  behoves  us  to  take  care  of  Jupiter.  From  this  incident 
we  see  that  the  first  consideration  with  a  knave,  is  how  to 
help  himself,  and  the  second,  how  to  do  it  with  an  appearance 
of  helping  others. 

Example  Sd. 
A  Scottish  proverb  says,  "  Cocks  are  free  of  horse-corn." 
This  saying  implies  that  people  are  liberal  or  profuse  of  what 
belongs  to  another. 

Example  4//i. 
Use  a  cat  to  the  churn,  and  she  will  call  it  custom.     This 

*  A  proverb  is  a  short  sentence,  expressing  a  well-known  truth  or  com 
mon  fact,  ascertained  by  experience  or  observation.  A  maxim  is  a  principle 
generally  received  or  admitted  as  true.     It  may  here  be  rei»arked  that 

rroverbs,  parables  and  fables  are  easily  converted*  the  one  into  the  other.  — 
xSee  Booth's  Principles^  p.  161.]  It  will  be  a  useful  exercise  for  the  student 
to  attempt  to  convert  examples  3d  and  4th  below,  into  a  comparison  and  • 
fable. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  155 

yt<t  rerb  implies  that  if  you  accustom  your  servants  or  other 
folks,  to  make  too  frequent  use  of  what  is  yours,  they  will 
think,  at  last,  that  they  have  acquired  a  right  to  it. 


LIX. 

OUTLINES  IN  NARRATIVE. 

A  simple  story  is  here  related,  with  outlines  of  the  same 
story  in  different  language,  which  the  student  may  fill  out  sc 
as  to  present  the  same  story,  with  all  the  circumstances. 

Examples, 

When  the  city  of  Troy  was  taken  by  the  Greeks,  after  the  first  fury 
of  plunder  was  over,  the  conquerors,  pitying  the  misfortunes  of  their  cap- 
tives caused  it  to  be  proclaimed,  that  every  free  citizen  had  the  Hberty  of 
taking  away  any  one  thing  which  he  valued  most :  upon  which  jEneas, 
oeglecting  every  thing  else,  only  carried  away  with  him  his  household  gods. 
The  Greeks,  delighted  with  his  piety,  gave  him  permission  to  carry  away 
with  him  any  other  thing  he  had  the  greatest  regard  for ;  and  imme 
diately  he  took  upon  his  shoulders  his  aged  father,  who  had  grown  de- 
crepit, and  was  carrying  him  out  of  the  town.  The  Greeks,  struck  with 
his  filial  duty,  gave  him  leave  to  take  every  thing  that  belonged  to  him ; 
declaring  that  Nature  itself  would  not  suffer  them  to  be  enemies  to  such 
as  shewed  so  great  piety  to  the  gods,  and  so  great  reverence  to  their 
parents. 

The  Outline. 


The  city  of  Troy thirst  for  plunder  was 


made  proclamation that  every  free-bom  citizen 

prized  the  most.     JEneas  disregarding 

his  household  gods.     The  Greeks  pleased any  other 

thing.     his  aged  and  venerable  father.     The 

Greeks  admiring every  thing  that  he 

Nature  itself ungenerous  ■      respect 

filial  regard . 

77ie  outline  JlUed  out. 

The  city  of  Troy  having  been  captured  by  the  Uree/cs,  when  their  thirst  foi 
plunder  was  partly  satiated,  commiserating  the  misfortunes  of  their  captives 


156  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

tluy  made  proclamation  througJiout  the  iinfortunate  city  lliat  every  free  born 
citizen  might  select  from  the  ruins  any  one  thing  which  he  prized  tlic  most. 
-^^ncas,  disregarding  his  /unises^  his  goods,  and  valuable  possessions,  took  only 
his  household  gods.  The  Greeks  pleased  ivith  his  reyard  for  the  objects  cf 
his  religious  worship,  gave  him  permission  to  add  any  other  thing  among  his 
possessions  to  these  objects  of  his  primary  regard ;  upon  ichich  he  immediately 
took  his  aged  and  venerable  father  upon  his  shoulders,  iclio,  from  the  infirmi 
ties  of  age,  was  unable  to  escape  without  assistance.  While  the  pious  son  wa 
thus  carrying  his  father  from  the  ruins,  the  Greeks,  admiring  his  disinterested 
filial  reverence  for  his  helpless  parent,  gave  him  permission  to  add  to  what  he  had 
already  taken,  every  tiling  that  he  owned,  declaring  that  Nature  itself  would 
not  permit  them  to  be  ungenerous  to  one  who  had  exhibited  such  respect  to  tJa 
dead  and  such  filial  regard /or  the  being  to  whom  he  owed  his  existence. 

Exercises. 


Sir  William  Gascoigne  was  the  Chief  Justice  of  England  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  4th.  His  presence  of  mind  and  his  great  dignity  were  most 
nobly  exhibited  when  the  Prince  of  Wales  determined  to  rescue  one  of  his 
servants,  who  was  on  trial  before  the  Judge,  presumed  to  interrupt  and 
even  to  strike  the  Chief  Justice.  Gascoigne  supported  the  chamcter  of  his 
station  against  the  bold  aggression,  and  committed  the  prince  to  prison, 
to  await  the  pleasui-e  of  the  Eang  his  father.  The  King  heard  of  the 
circumstance  with  becoming  propriety,  and  thanked  God  that  he  had 
given  him  a  judge  who  knew  how  to  administer  justice,  and  a  son  who 
could  obey  it 

Outline. 

One  of  the  servants  of was  tried  before and  con- 
demned, notAvithstanding  all  the  interest by  the  King's 

son.    The  Prince  of  Wales  was  so  incensed .    The  judge 

— — ^—  dignity  of  his  ordered and  the  prince 

iiLsult  ne  had  offered of  the  laws quietly 

gaol.     The  King  his  father .     Happy  is  the 

Iving courage  to  execute  the  laws a  son 

eabmit 

2. 

A  painter  was  desirous  of  drawing  an  elephant  in  an  unusual  attitude 
with  nis  trunk  erect,  and  his  mouth  open ;  and,  in  order  to  induce  th» 
beast  to  show  himself  to  more  advantage,  engaged  a  person  to  stand 
by,  and  tlirow  fniit  into  his  mouth.  The  person,  however,  partly  to 
deceive  the  unsusjiccting  animal,  often  kept  in  his  hand  tlic  fruit  which 
he  pretended  to  give  to  the  elejjhant ;  who,  not  liking  the  mocker)-,  and 
Bupjiosing  the  innocent  painter  to  he  the  cause,  tlirew  out  of  liis  trunk 
such  a  quantity  of  water  upon  his  paper,  as  entirely  spoiled  his  skctcli. 
and  prevented  him  from  proceeding  in  his  work. 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  157 


Outline. 

An  artist uncommon raised '-—  open 

procured and  loss in  order  to  make advan- 
tageous   .     The  foolish deceive 


made kept  the  fruit .     The  sagacious 


not  relishing and  believing collected which 

he  discharged entirely  spoiling and  preventing 


A  gentleman,  residing  at  Gosport,  England,  was,  when  visiting  Ports- 
mouth, usually  accompanied  by  his  dog,  in  the  ferry-boat.  One  day,  it 
so  happened,  that  the  dog  lost  his  master  somewhere  in  Portsmouth,  and 
surmising  that  he  had  re-crossed  the  water  for  Gosport,  sped  his  way  to 
the  house  of  a  bookseller  in  High  street,  and  by  every  possible  means 
intimated  his  misfortune.  "  What,"  exclaimed  the  shopman,  "  you  have 
lost  your  master,  have  you  1  Well,  here  is  a  penny,  for  your  fare  across 
the  water."  The  dog  snatched  up  the  coin,  ran  directly  to  Point  Beach, 
dropped  the  penny  into  the  hand  of  the  waterman,  and  was  ferried  across 
with  the  other  passengers. 


A  resident  at wherever  he  went attended 

who with  liim.    It  chanced 


missing and  supposing returned speedily 

and  by that  instinct .  Have  you  lost 

1    Well some  money seizing made 

and  paying was  conveyed . 


LX. 
CONNECTED  NARRATIVE,  FROM  SCATTERED  FACTS. 

The  selection  of  incidents  to  be  presented  ii>  a  narration  or 
a  description,  requires  some  taste  as  well  as  judgment.  The 
union  of  such  incidents  in  a  connected  narrative  is  not  alto- 
gether a  mechanical  exertion.  The  order  of  time  should  be 
strictly  observed.  Subordinate  to  the  order  of  time,  is  the 
order  of  the  circumstances  themselves.  It  is  perhaps  a  good 
general  rule,  as  in  the  case  of  the  arrangement  of  the  members 
of  a  sentence,  to  reserve  the  most  important  for  the  last.  But 
the  application  of  this  rule  must  be  submitted  to  the  taste  and 
judgment,  as  well  as  the  design  of  the  writer. 
14 


.168  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Exercises. 


I  The  following  particulars  are  presented  to  be  united  in  a  conncctM 
narrative.  The  expressions  may  be  changed,  as  it  may  be  necessary  to 
«reave  the  circumstances  together  in  one  continued  narration.] 

History  furnishes  no  parallel  to  the  character  of  Washington. 

Washington  died,  after  a  short  illness,  on  the  14th  of  December,  1799 

He  captured  Lord  Comwallis  at  Yorktown,  in  1781. 

This  event  established  the  independence  of  the  United  S.ates. 

On  the  25th  of  December,  1776,  he  crossed  the  Delaware,  and  soon 

gained  the  important  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton. 
He  was  elected  President  of  the  United  States  in  1789 
He  was  President  for  eight  years. 
He  was  again  chosen  Commander-in-chief  of  the  American  army  in 

1798. 
His  abilities  were  first  exercised  by  Dinwiddie  in  J  753. 
He  was  the  Aid-de-camp  of  Gen.  Braddock  in  175o. 
After  resigning  the  Presidency  he  retired  to  Mount  Vernon,  where  he 

devoted  himself  to  the  pursuits  of  agriculture- 
He  was  bom  in  1732,  in  the  county  of  Fairfax,  in  Virginia- 
He  was  descended  from  an   English  family,  which  emigrated  from 
Cheshire  about  1630. 
He  received  his  education  from  a  private  tutor 


William  Penn  lost  his  wife  in  1694,  and  was  much  afflicted  by  the 
dvent. 

He  married  again  in  about  two  years,  and  employed  himself  in  travel- 
rtng  over  Ireland  as  a  preacher  of  the  pcculiai  doctrines  of  his  sect. 

In  1699  he  visited  America  with  his  wife  and  family,  and  returned  to 
England  in  1701. 

He  died  at  Rushcomb,  near  Twyford,  in  Berks,  July  30th,  1718. 

Ho  was  buried  at  Jordan,  near  Beaconsfield,  Bucks. 

His  character  was  truly  benevolent  and  humane,  and  his  labors  were 
exerted  for  the  good  of  mankind. 

The  long  prosperity  of  Pennsylvania  furnishes  the  best  evidence  of 
his  wisdom  as  a  legislator. 

He  was  bom  in  Ix)ndon  in  1644. 

He  was  expelled  from  College  on  account  of  his  religious  opinions. 

His  religious  opinions  differed  widely  from  those  of  the  Established 
Church. 

The  College  was  of  the  same  religious  senUments  with  the  Established 
Church. 

His  father  left  him  an  estate  worth  1500  pounds  per  annum. 

Charles  2d,  King  of  England,  granted  him  a  province  of  North  America, 
then  aiUed  New  Netherlands;  but  now,  from  William  Penn,  called 
Pennsylvania. 

When  he  was  in  College,  he  withdrew  from  the  national  forms  of  wo** 


AIDS    TO     ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  159 

«nip  with  other  students,  who,  like  himself,  had  listened  to  the  preaching 
of  Thomas  Loe,  a  quakcr  of  eminence. 

Ln  1672  he  married  a  lady  of  principles  similar  to  his  own,  and  fixed 
his  residence  at  Rickmansworth,  where  he  labored  hard  to  disseminat<» 
the  principles  of  his  sect  both  by  his  preachings  and  his  writings. 

In  1682  he  came  out  to  America  for  the  first  time,  and  laid  out  the  city 
of  Philadelphia,  where  he  invited  settlers  from  all  parts  of  England,  and 
held  out  to  them  a  greater  dogree  of  religious  liberty  under  his  cons'i- 
tution  than  had  ever  before  been  enjoyed  by  any  sect  or  people. 


LXI. 

NARRATION  EXPAKDED.* 

Example. 

At  the  battle  of  Philippi,  Lucilius  wishing  to  give  his  inti- 
mate friend  Brutus  an  opportunity  to  escape,  pretended  himself 
to  be  Brutus,  and  being  led  before  Anthony,  boldly  avowed  the 
ariiiice.  Anthony,  admiring  his  fidelity  to  his  friend,  informed 
him  of  the  death  of  Brutus,  and  offered  him  his  friendship. 
Lucilivs  accepted  the  offer,  and  continued  his  faithful  friend. 

Same  story  expanded. 

At  tht  battle  of  Philippi,  when  Brutus,  after  the  route  of  his  army,  was 
in  dangei  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  his  bosom  friend  Lu- 
cilius gave  him  an  opportunity  to  escape,  calling  out,  "  I  am  Brutus ! 
lead  me  to  Anthony !  "  Being  conducted  to  Anthony,  he  spoke  with 
great  resolution :  "  I  have  employed  this  artifice,"  said  he,  "  that  Brutus 
might  not  fall  alive  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  The  gods  will  never 
permit  that  fortune  shall  triumph  so  far  over  virtue.  In  spite  of  fortune, 
Brutus  will  always  be  found,  dead  or  alive,  in  a  situation  worthy  of  his 
courage."  Anthony,  admiring  the  firmness  of  Lucilius,  said  to  him,  "  you 
merit  a  greater  recompense  than  it  is  in  my  power  to  bestow.  I  have  been 
just  now  informed  of  the  death  of  Brutus ;  and  as  your  fidelity  to  him  is 
now  at  an  end,  I  beg  earnestly  to  be  received  in  his  place ;  love  me  as  you 
did  him,  I  wish  no  more."    Luciluis  embraced  the  ofi^er,  engaged  himself 


*  The  plan  in  narrative  writing  is  simply  the  statement  of  events  in  tlie 
order  of  their  occurrence  ;  and  the  expansion  is  the  mention,  with  varying 
degrees  of  minuteness  of  their  statement,  of  the  different  circumstances 
connected  with  these  events,  accompanied  by  incidental  remarks  and  lo 
flections. 


160  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

to  Anthony,  and  maintaining  the  same  fidelity  to  him  that  he  had  doM 
to  Brutus,  adhered  to  him  when  he  was  abandoned  by  all  the  world. 

Tlie  same  story  still  more  expanded. 

After  the  second  battle  of  Philippi  between  Anthony  and  Octavius,  twc 
of  the  Roman  triumvirs,  and  Brutus,  which  proved  fatid  to  the  latter,  and 
indeed,  to  the  liberty  of  Rome,  one  Lucilius  Lucinus,  an  intimate  friend  of 
Brutus,  observing  a  body  of  Thracian  horse  taking  no  notice  of  any  other 
in  their  pursuit,  but  making  directly  towards  Brutus,  resolved  to  stop  them, 
and  save  the  life  of  his  general  at  the  hazard  of  his  own.  Accordingly, 
without  acquainting  Brutus  with  his  design,  he  halted  till  the  Thracian" 
came  up  and  surrendered  him ;  then  he  cried  out,  "  I  am  Brutus ! "  and 
begging  quarter,  desired  they  would  carry  him  to  Anthony,  pretending  that 
he  teared  Octavius.  The  Thracians,  overjoyed  with  their  prey,  and  think  • 
ing  themselves  happy,  immediately  detached  some  of  their  owu  body  t« 
acquaint  Anthony  with  their  good  fortune ;  and,  in  the  mean  time,  giving 
over  the  pursuit,  returned  to  the  field  of  battle  with  their  prisoner.  The 
report  bemg  spread  in  an  instant,  all  over  the  army,  that  Brutus  was  taken, 
and  that  the  Thracians  were  bringing  him  alive  to  Anthony,  both  soldiers 
and  officers  flocked  together  from  all  parts  to  see  him.  Some  pitied  his 
misfortunes,  others  accused  him  of  a  meanness  unbecoming  his  former 

glory,  for,  sufiering  himself  out  of  two  much  love  of  life,  to  be  a  prey  to 
arbarians.  As  for  Anthony,  he  was  not  a  little  concerned  at  this  adven 
ture,  being  quite  at  a  loss  in  what  manner  he  should  receive,  and  how  he 
should  treat  nis  illustrious  captive ;  but  he  was  soon  delivered  from  his  un- 
easiness ;'  for  as  the  Thracians  drew  near,  he  knew  the  prisoner,  who  had 
pixssed  himself  upon  the  Thracians  for  Brutus,  and  now  addressing  the 
Triumvir  with  a  generous  confidence :  "  Be  assured,  Anthony,"  said  he, 
"  that  no  enemy  either  has  or  ever  shall  take  Marcus  Brutus  alive ;  forbid  it, 

fe  Gods,  that  fortune  should  ever  prevail  so  much  above  virtue  !  But  let 
im  be  discovered,  dead  or  alive,  he  will  certainly  be  found  in  such  a  state 
as  is  worthy  of  him.  As  for  me,  I  have  delivered  myself  up  to  save  him, 
and  am  now  ready  to  suffer  whatever  torments  you  think  proper  to  in 
flict  upon  me,  without  demanding  or  expecting  any  quarter."  Anthony, 
wonderfully  taken  with  the  fidelitv,  virtue,  and  generosity  of  Lucilin's, 
turned  to  the  Thracians,  now  sensible  of,  and  outraged  at  their  disappoint- 
ment, and  addressed  them  thus :  "  I  perceive,  my  fellow  soldiers,  that  you 
are  concerned,  and  full  of  resentment  for  having  been  thus  imposed  upon 
by  Lucilius ;  but  be  assured,  that  you  have  met  with  a  booty  better  than 
that  you  have  sought  for;  you  have  been  in  search  of  an  enemy,  and  you 
have  brought  me  a  friend.  I  was  truly  at  a  loss  how  I  should  have  tieated 
Brutus,  if  you  had  brought  him  to  me  alive ;  but  of  tliis  I  am  sure,  that  il 
is  bettor  to  have  such  a  man  as  Lncilius  our  friend,  tlian  our  enemy." 
Having  thus  spoken,  he  embraced  Lucilius  and  commended  him  to  tht 
care  of  one  of  his  friends. 

The  ttudent  may  now  expand  the  following  story  or  narrative: 

STORY    OF   MEGAN. 

Megan  was  one  of  a  tribe  of  Indians,  who  ranged  the  extensive  wfldi 
a1)out  the  Falls  of  Niagara.  He  was  possessed  of  such  superior  personal 
and  mental  nualities  as  arc  very  seldom  concentrated  in  the  same  person, 
generous  ana  luimanc,  as  well  as  brave,  he  knew  how  to  conquer  a  foe, 
and  how  to  raise  him  when  disarmed  ;  and,  wiiilc  he  liastened  to  shed  the 
blood  of  Ills  enemies,  he  paused  to  drop  the  tef  r  of  sympathy  with  atiiicted 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  16i 

friends.  By  these  shining  qualifications  he  was  endeared  to  those  around 
him,  and  was  looked  upon  as  a  future  ornamer^/  and  champion  of  hia 
tribe. 

From  the  age  in  which  he  was  able  to  bend  a  bow,  he  was  ever  em 
ployed,  either  in  pursuit  of  game  in  the  forest,  or  in  showing  his  skill  in 
the  management  of  his  canoe.  His  nation  was  now  involved  in  a  war, 
which  opened  to  him  a  field  of  action,  and  afforded  frequent  opportunities 
to  display  his  valor.  In  one  of  his  excursions,  he  rescued  from  captivity 
a  beautiful  female  of  his  nation,  who  had  been  taken  some  weeks  before, 
and  for  whom  he  had  conceived  a  passion,  previously  to  her  being  taken. 

Their  mutual  attachment  was  not  a  little  strengthened  by  this  adven 
ture ;  she  was  conducted  home  in  triumph,  a  day  was  appointed  for  the 
nuptial  ceremonies,  and  Megan  looked  forward  with  fond  expectation  tc 
the  happy  days  he  should  spend  with  his  beloved  Alcoris.  But,  alas  !  how 
often  are  the  fairest  hopes  we  can  conceive,  the  most  deceitful !  A  few 
days  only  had  elapsed,  since  his  return,  when  he  yielded  to  a  vice,  that 
may  be  called  a  characteristic  of  these  people ;  —  he  drank  too  freely  ol 
spirit  and  lay  down  in  his  canoe,  which  was  fastened  to  a  rock  on  shore, 
and  was  soon  lost  in  sleep.  Impatient  at  his  too  long  absence,  Alcoris 
went  in  search  of  him,  and  what  was  her  surprise  and  horror,  as  she  drew 
near  the  place,  to  see  his  canoe  loosened  by  a  rivaj,  who  had  made  several 
fniitless  attempts  to  gain  her  aiFection,  and  rapidly  floating  down  the 
swift  current  towards  the  great  falls  !  In  vain  did  she  cry  out,  in  vain 
extend  her  arms  towards  the  dearest  object  of  her  affection.  He  enjoyed 
a  sweet  tranquillity  till  roused  to  a  sense  of  his  danger  by  the  noise  of  the 
cataract.  Megan  is  now  apprised  of  his  fate.  He  looks  back,  recognizes 
Alcoris,  and  waving  his  cap  —  goes  over  the  falls  and  is  seen  no  more."* 

The  student  may  now  reverse  the  process  of  expanding^  and  present  an 
abridgement  of  the  following  narration.'\ 

Many  are  the  tales  that  have  been  repeated  to  us  of  the  revolutionary 
straggles  of  our  ancestors.  Yet  each  little  incident  connected  with  those 
times  of  peril,  though  often  listened  to,  becomes  interesting  to  us,  who  are 
now  enjoying  the  blessings  of  that  priceless  freedom  for  which  om:  fathers 
bled. 

"  Proudly,  O  children  of  freedom, 
The  stars  of  your  banner  float  high  ; 

Bright  is  the  halo  of  glory, 
O'er  the  graves  where  your  ancestors  lie. 

Cherished  may  every  memorial  be, 
Of  the  brave  ones  who  perished  that  ye  might  be  free." 

Such  was  the  motto  that  my  sister  wrote,  when  I  told  her  that,  in  my 
next  composition,  I  should  weave  up  a  reminiscence  of  the  Revolution,  and 


*  This  narrative  is  a  genuine  college  exercise,  presented  some  years  ago 
at  one  of  the  colleges  in  this  State. 

t  This  narration  is  a  school  exercise,  presented  within  a  few  weeks  by 
one  of  the  pupils,  a  young  lady  of  about  thirteen  years  of  age,  at  the  public 
school  of  which  the  author  has  the  charge.  It  has  been  thought  that  models 
and  specimens  of  this  kind  would  be  more  useful  than  more  finished  writ- 
ings; because  they  present  to  the  student  something  within  his  reach.  _  It 
will  not  be  very  difficult  for  him,  after  he  has  attained  some  ease  in  wiitinj?, 
to  adopt  as  his  motto  the  principle,  "  Excelsior" 

u* 


162  AIDS   TO    EVGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

requested  her  to  write  a  sentiment  to  grace  the  commencement ;  but,  whea 
Bhe  glanced  at  the  simple  incident  I  intended  to  relate,  she  thought  the  motto 
and  the  sketch  were  not  very  appropriate  ;  but,  as  I  insisted  on  its  appro- 

Eriateness  to  my  brave  Arthur's  story ;  and,  as  I  also  had  the  slip  of  paper 
1  my  hand  on  which  it  was  pencilled,  (possession  being  nine  pomts  of  the 
law,)  I  was  allowed  to  retain  it,  or  rather  she  was  obliged  to  yield  to  my 
whim,  and,  accordingly,  I  transferred  it  in  triumph  to  the  top  of  the  page 
*^n  which  I  commence  — 

A    REVOLUTIONARY    STORY. 

Near  the  extremity  of  the  beautiful  peninsula  on  which  Charlestown 
situated,  stood  a  large  old-fashioned  house,  in  the  year  1775,  whose  time- 
worn  walls  were  partially  concealed,  in  the  warmer  seasons,  by  luxuriant 
grape-vines,  that,  spreading  over  the  latticed  portico,  ran  across  the  small 
windows,  and  clambered  along  the  gable  roof:  A  group  of  horse-chestnut 
trees,  and  a  hedge  composed  of  the  briery  bushes  of  the  barberrv  and  black- 
beiTy,  with  here  and  there  a  sweetbrier,  covered  with  its  delicate  nink 
blossoms,  enclosed  a  yard  overgrown  with  bright  green  grass,  and  wnich 
extended  around  the  eastern  and  western  sides  of  the  mansion.  Beneath 
the  vine-covered  windows  on  the  west  a  small  parterre  of  flowers  bloomed, 
while  beyond,  a  vegetable  garden  extended  to  v/here  the  bright  waves  of 
the  river  Charles  rolled»onward.  The  house  was  occupied  by  Mrs.  Leslie, 
her  two  children,  and  a  female  domestic,  —  Captain  Leslie  being  with  the 
American  army,  at  the  neighboring  town  of  Cambridge,  where  it  had  been 
stationed  for  nearly  two  months,  while  the  British  troops  lay  shut  up  in 
Boston. 

It  was  the  beginning  of  June,  and,  as  the  afternoon  of  a  beautiful  day 
drew  near  its  close,  Mrs.  Leslie  laid  aside  the  sewing  materials  that  had 
absorbed  her  attention  during  the  morning,  and,  stepping  out  upon  the 
green  turf,  directed  her  steps  towards  a  low  wooden  bench  beneath  a  large 
apple-tree,  where  a  voung  and  sweet-looking  girl  was  sitting.  As  her 
mother  approached,  Anna  Leslie  dropped  her  knitting  work  and  held  forth 
a  few  simple,  but  fragrant,  flowers.  A  caress  was  the  reward  which  the 
tift'ectionate  girl  expected  and  received  for  her  gift.  As  she  threw  a  glance 
so  expressive  of  love  on  her  mother's  face,  it  was  sad  for  that  mother  to 
know,  that  she  could  not  perceive  the  smile  of  afiection  in  return  ;  for  her 
child's  dark  blue  eyes  were  sightless,  —  poor  Anna  Leslie  was  blind.  Few 
persons  would  have  thought,  as  thev  looked  in  the  lovely  child's  face,  as 
some  strain  of  music,  some  loved  and  famiUar  tone,  or  some  bright,  happy 
thought  awakened  in  her  countenance  a  beautiful  expression,  which  ac 
corded  well  with  her  symmetrical  features,  —  few  persons  would  have 
thought  that  Aima  had  been  bom  blind,  that  she  never  had  viewed  the 
charming  scenes  of  nature,  that  her  eye  had  never  glanced  over  the  pages 
jf  literature,  or  the  works  of  art.  But  a  mother's  watchful  tenderness  and 
oatient  instruction  had,  during  the  twelve  years  of  her  life,  somewhat  sup 
plied  the  deficiency  which  her  misfortune  occasioned ;  and  her  brother 
Arthur,  two  years  older  than  herself,  had,  with  more  than  a  brother's  usual 
affection,  cherished  and  protected  his  helpless  sister.  Unlike  the  interest- 
ing and  unfortunate  Laura  Bridgeman,  Anna  could  hear  the  loved  voices 
of  her  friends  and  the  sweet  tones  of  her  mother's  harpsichord.  She  could 
give  utterance,  too,  in  a  low,  clear  voice,  to  her  thoughts  and  feelings,  and. 
although  she  .lato  not  her  mother's  smile,  she  heard  the  whispered  words  oi 
Inv,»,  and  returned  her  affectionate  greeting. 

Drawing  her  daughter's  arm  withm  her  own,  Mrs.  Leslie  retunicd  slowly 
towards  the  house.  The  blushing  June  roses  were  sending  forth  their  rich 
odor  from  the  large  bushes,  covered  with  flowers,  that  bordered  the  path, 
and  Mrs.  Leslie  plucked  an  opening  bud  and  placed  it  in  her  daughter's 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  16*^ 

hair.  All  arc.und  their  little  domain  looked  peacefully,  but  Anna  echoed 
her  mother's  sigh,  as  the  beating  of  the  dnim  and  other  sounds  of  war  came 
faintly  from  the  hostile  camps  and  awakened  in  their  bosoms  sorrowful 
thoughts  of  the  situation  of  their  country,  and  the  welfare  of  the  husband 
and  father,  whose  life  was  so  precious,  yet  in  such  peril.  As  they  silently 
approached  the  house,  Anna  felt  conscious  that  her  mother  was  becoming 
absorbed  in  melancholy  reverie,  and,  to  divert  her  attention,  proposed  to 
meet  Arthur.  Mrs.  Leslie  consented,  and  they  passed  through  the  flower 
beds  and  proceeded  to  the  lower  parts  of  the  grounds,  where  Arthur  em- 
ployed himself  in  cultivating  the  vegetable  garden  ;  for  it  v^as  impossible  tc 
procure  a  man  in  the  town  tor  that  purpose,  all  who  were  able  having  joined 
the  army  of  their  country.  But  Arthur,  with  the  occasional  assistance  of 
Rachel,  their  faithful  black  servant,  had  managed  to  raise  quite  a  respect- 
able stock  of  vegetables,  not  only  for  his  own  familj',  but  he  sometimes 
found  means  to  carry  a  portion  to  supply  his  father's  table  at  the  camp. 
Arthur,  who  had  just  completed  his  work  and  refreshed  himself  by  a  bath 
in  the  river,  as  his  mother  and  sister  appeared  in  sight,  hastened  to  join 
them,  and  to  communicate  an  account  of  an  extensive  depredation  commit- 
ted the  preceding  night  in  his  garden.  Naturally  impetuous  in  his  temper, 
Arthur  now  complained  bitterly,  and  vowed  vengeance  on  the  British  thief, 
as  he  persisted  in  calling  him,  "for  he  had  traced  the  footsteps  over  his  deli- 
cate lettuce  beds  and  young  peas,  till  they  terminated  on  the  verge  of  the 
river.  As  his  boyish  imagination  magnified  his  wrongs,  Arthur's  dark  eye 
sparkled,  his  cheek  flushod,  and  his  red  lip  curled  with  scorn,  and  not  till 
the  sweet  voice  of  his  sister  had  communicated  in  a  whisper  a  plan  for 
watching  that  night,  and  at  least  ascertaining  who  the  thief  was,  did_  his 
brow  become  unclouded,  just  as  they  entered  their  quiet,  low-ceiled  sitting- 
room.  A  very  pleasant  room  it  was,  though  old  fashioned.  Its  deep  win- 
dow seats  were  nicely  cushioned,  its  clumsy-looking  mahogany  tables,  with 
dark,  time-colored  surfaces,  highl}^  polished,  the  carved  boxes  and  stands 
that  came  from  Calcutta,  its  fireplace,  surrounded  by  small  Dutch  tiles,  the 
antique-looking  portraits,  that  came  over  in  the  Mayflower,  it  was  said,  and 
the  painted  screens  placed  around,  made  the  apartment  a  favorite  with  Ar 
thur  and  Anna.  The  bright  flowers  in  the  old  China  vases,  and  the  whice 
drapery  of  the  table,  now  spread  with  their  simple  evening  repast,  enlivened 
the  somewhat  sombre  aspect  of  the  room,  for  the  sun  had  just  sunk  below 
the  horizon  and  the  vin^s  hung  thickly  over  the  windows ;  but  Rachel 
pushed  them  aside  and  commenced  swaying  her  fly-brush,  as  Mrs.  Leslie 
seated  herself  at  the  table.  Rachel  was  somewhat  a  privileged  being  in  the 
family,  as  she  was  a  faithful  and  trusty  domestic,  and  she  often  enlivened 
the  children  at  meal  times  by  her  quamt  expressions  and  anecdotes  of  the 
olden  time.  This  evening  she  began  to  lament,  as  she  glanced  ruefully  at 
the  plain  bread,  fresh  strawberries,  and  bright  water  from  their  own  cool 
and  shaded  well,  that  her  lady  could  no  longer  preside,  as  foimerly,  over  the 
splendid  silver  plate  and  beautiful  China  tea-set,  that  once  adorned  the 
table,  covered  with  the  delicacies  of  the  season.  But  now  vi^hat  was  the  use 
of  the  plainest  cups  and  saucers  without  tea,  and  even  the  strawberries 
must  be  eaten  without  cream,  for  the  British  foragers  had  stolen  their  last 
eow. 

Arthur,  who  had  been  absorbed  in  his  own  thoughts,  now  joined  in  the 
conversation,  for  he  generally  felt  interested  when  any  thing  was  said  re- 
specting the  injuries  inflicted  by  the  foes  of  his  country ;  and,  long  after 
Mrs.  Leslie  had  retired  from  the  room,  did  the  eager  boy  continue  to  listen 
to  Rachel's  tales,  and  even  Anna  at  last  left  them,  and  passing  out  of  the 
glass  door  into  the  large  hall,  for  she  was  perfectly  acquainted  with  every 
nook  in  her  childhood's  home,  and  could  find  her  way  without  difiiculty 
through  every  room  of  the  house,  she  ascended  the  broad  staircase  with 
larxce  wooden  balustrades,  at  the  head  of  ^he  hall,  and  entered  her  own 


164  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

chamber.  Drawing  the  snowy  curtain  aside,  Anna  seated  herself  on  je 
window  seat,  for  though  she  could  not  look  out  upon  the  moonlit  sceiF  it 
was  pleasant  to  feel  the  cool  fragrant  breeze  play  over  her  face,  and  ht  i  it 
rustling  among  the  branches  of  the  horse-chestnut  trees.  Long  did  Anna 
sit  there,  and  longer  she  would  have  lingered,  indulging  in  those  waking 
dreams,  sad  and  yet  sometimes  enchanting,  that  are  peculiarly  tfndeared  to 
those,  who,  like  her,  are  shut  out  from  many  of  the  bright  realities  of  life,  it 
the  door  communicating  with  her  mother's  apartment  had  not  gently  opened, 
and  Mrs.  Leslie  entered  with  a  mother's  care  to  see  that  all  was  safe. 
"  Anna,  my  child,  nine  o'clock,  and  you  sitting  here,  when  the  damp  breeze 
from  the  river  is  blowing  directly  in  the  window?  what  imprudence!" 
The  window  was  closed,  and  Anna  was  carefully  enveloped  in  flannel,  and 
only  her  urgent  remonstrances  prevented  her  mother  from  administering 
some  hot  herb  tea.  After  Anna  had  retired,  Mrs.  Leslie  withdrew  to  her 
chamber,  full  of  anxiety  for  her  beloved  child,  whose  delicate  health  and 
helplessness  seemed  to  increase  the  love  she  felt  for  her. 

When  the  old  clock  in  the  corner  of  the  hall  struck  nine,  Arthur  lighted 
his  candle  and  hastened  to  his  room.  After  closing  the  door,  he  took  from 
his  chest  an  old  fowling-piece,  and  carefully  examined  it.  Placing  it  on  the 
table,  he  repaired  to  the  window,  and,  parting  the  waving  tendrils  of  the 
vine,  looked  out  anxiously.  Light  clouds  had  been  flying  across  the  deep 
blue  of  the  sky  all  the  evening ;  but  now,  darker  and  darker  they  gathered 
in  huge  masses,  till  it  was  impossible  to  discern  objects  with  any  distinct- 
ness on  the  river,  or  even  in  the  garden  below.  Arthur  was  a  brave  boy, 
but  he  hesitated  at  the  thought  of  descending  to  the  garden  and  there 
watching  for  the  thief,  for  the  increasing  darkness  made  it  impossible  to  see 
trom  the  window;  but  his  hesitation  vanished,  for  he  thought  he  faintly 
neard  the  sound  of  oars  on  the  river,  and  snatching  up  his  fowling-piece, 
and  silently  opening  his  door,  he  proceeded  lightly  along  the  hall.  As  he 
passed  the  clock,  it  struck  ten,  and  its  silvery  sound  somewhat  startled  him 
as  he  felt  his  way  in  the  dark.  Noiselessly  he  opened  the  hall  door,  and 
stepped  out  into  the  yard.  Everything  around  was  quiet,  except  the  rust- 
ling of  the  branches  as  a  gust  passed  by,  and  the  sound  of  oars  striking 
the  waves,  which  he  now  heard  with  more  distinctness.  Arthur  bounded 
lightly  over  the  hedge  of  sweetbrier,  and  made  his  way  through  the  dewy 
shrubbery  to  his  garden.  It  was  very  dark,  and  as  he  hid  behind  a  group 
of  currant  bushes  and  awaited  the  coming  of  the  depredator,  he  could 
scarcely  distinguish  a  single  object.  Suddenly  the  noise  ceased  on  the 
river,  and  breathlessly  Arthur  watched  through  the  gloom.  He  started  as 
he  thought  he  perceived  a  tall  form  bending  over  near  him ;  but,  looking 
more  closely,  he  saw  it  was  a  large  sunflower  bowing  its  head  in  the 
breeze.  Again  ;  did  his  imagination  deceive  him?  No;  a  tall  Highlander, 
his  tartan  and  plumes  shaken  by  the  wind,  crept  cautiously  through  the 
bushes  and  proceeded  to  fill  a  large  bag  with  all  that  the  increasing  dark- 
ness would  enable  him  to  lay  his  hands  on.  Arthur's  fears,  if  he  had  any, 
were  now  dispelled,  so  indignant  did  ho  feel  as  he  saw  the  inroads  made  m 
his  fine  beds  of  vegetables,  and  he  sprung  behind  the  startled  Highlander, 
and  in  a  voice  hoarse  with  rage,  levelling  his  fowling-piece  close  to  his 
head,  threatened  him  with  instant  death  if  he  made  the  least  resistance. 
The  frightened  fellow,  rendered  confident  and  more  daring  by  his  former 
unmolested  visit,  had  come  totally  unarmed  save  a  dirk  in  his  belt;  but 
the  surprise  and  consternation  which  his  sudden  detection  had  occasioned, 
not  being  able  to  see  his  enemy  and  with  death  so  near,  his  presence  of  mind 
utterly  forsook  him,  and  he  followed  implicitly  the  commands  of  Arthur, 
who  ordered  him  to  take  up  the  bag  and  to  walk  in  <"ront  whether  he  should 
direct.  Tremblingly  the  Highlander,  not  daring  to  move  his  head,  for  the 
loaded  gun  still  threatened  him  with  instant  death,  obeyed ;  and  Arthur, 
following  closely  and  silently  through  the  garden  and  along  the  road,  stopped 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  165 

tot  tiil  he  arrived  at  the  camp  in  Cambridge,  where  he  delivei^d  his  prisoner 
3ito  his  father's  hands.  Proudly  Captain  Leslie  gazed  on  his  intrepid  boy, 
and  many  were  the  compliments  that  his  courage  obtained  from  the  oflQcers 
and  soldiers.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  anger  and  mortification  which  the 
Highlander  felt  as  he  gazed  in  surprise  on  his  youtliful  captor,  and  many 
were  the  oaths  that  fell  from  his  lips,  as  he  saw  the  scornful  sneers  and 
listened  to  the  contemptuous  remarks  of  the  American  soldiers  as  they 
passed  him  and  looked  upon  his  sturdy  form,  and  compared  it  with  the 
slight,  graceful  figure  of  Arthur  Leslie.  Arthur  did  not  long  remain  at  the 
camp,  but  hastened  home  to  relieve  the  anxiety  of  his  mother  and  sister, 
and  just  as  the  sun  began  to  gild  "tree,  shrub,  and  fiower,"  Arthur  with 
one  bound  sprang  over  the  thicket,  shaking  large  pearly  dew-drops  from 
the  roses,  and  entered  the  portico  just  as  his  mother  was  descending  the 
stairs  fi*om  his  room,  where  the  bed,  which  evidently  had  not  been  occu- 
pied, had  dreadfully  alarmed  her.  Her  anxiety  was  somewhat  allayed  by 
the  appearance  of  Arthur  ;  and  when  at  the  breakfast  table  he  related  to 
her  and  to  Anna  the  adventure  of  the  night,  Mrs.  Leslie  knew  not  whether 
to  blame  the  temerity,  or  praise  the  courage  which  he  undoubtedly  had 
manifested.  Eachel  was  delighted  with  her  brave  boy's  conduct ;  and  long 
afterward,  when  the  war  was  ended  and  Captain  Leslie  had  removed  to  the 
city,  whei-e  Mrs.  Leshe  resumed  her  fonner  station  at  the  head  of  a 
splendid  establishment,  and  the  sweet  Anna  had  cultivated,  with  her 
brother's  assistance,  the  learning  and  accomplishments  attainable  by  one  in 
her  situation,  then  did  Rachel  recount  to  her  wondering  hearers  the  storv 
of  Arthur's  adventiire  with  the  Highlander. 


LXII. 
DESCRIPTION. 

Description,  as  defined  by  Webster,  is  "  a  representation  of 
rames,  natures,  or  properties,  that  give  to  another  a  view  of 
the  thing." 

It  is,  in  fine,  a  picture,  delineated,  not  by  lines,  but  by  words ;  and  it 
must  be  so  presented  as  to  convey  a  clear,  definite,  and  exact  semblance 
to  the  mind,  such  as  the  object  described  presents  to  the  eye.  Such  a  re- 
presentation may  be  called  a  faithful  description.  Faithful  descriptions, 
therefore,  are  faithful  pictures.  All  definitions  must  be  less  perfect  des- 
criptions of  a  material  thing,  than  a  visible  figure  or  delineation.  But 
when  a  definition  is  expanded,  so  as  to  embrace  not  only  all  the  particu- 
lars in  which  the  object  defined  'diff'ers  from  other  objects,  but  also  those 
in  which  it  resembles  others  of  the  same  kind,  such  a  definition,  is,  in  fact, 
a  description. 

Owing  to  peculiar  associations  in  the  mind,  and  tlie  difference  in  the 

habits  of  perception  and  observation,  no  two  individuals  would  probably 

describe  the  same  scene  or  the  same  object  alike.    This  is  particularly  the 

rtiso  witli  young  wi-itors.    Some,  from  a  natural  sluggishness  of  mind, 

\ 


16t>  AIDS    TU    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

wilJ  perceive  few  particulars  worthy  of  notice,  where  others,  of  differen'> 
temperament,  will  find  the  subject  replete  with  interesting  details,  all 
worthy  of  regard.* 

A  few  suggestions  will  now  be  presented,  which  will  probably  lead  those 
who  may  use  this  book  to  think,  and  to  use  their  eyes  to  some  purpose, 
when  called  upon  to  give  a  written  description  of  any  sensible  object 
These  suggestions  will  be  followed  by  a  list  of  details,  some  one  or  more 
of  which  may  always  be  noticed  in  a  written  description. 

It  %vill  be  noticed,  that  the  object  in  presenting  such  a  list  is  only,  as 
has  already  been  said,  to  suggest  ideas,  which  the  student  himself  is  to  mould 
as  they  may  arise,  and  combine  with  what  may  spring  spontaneously  from 
his  own  mind. 

'  To  collect  materials  for  a  good  description,  there  must  be  a  devoted  at 
tention  to  the  beauties  of  nature  and  to  the  scenes  of  social  life.  The 
mind  will  thereby  be  rendered  susceptible  and  discriminative,  acquiring 
sources  of  injprovement  which  would  otherwise  be  lost,  while  variety  and 
copiousness  of  expression  will  at  the  same  time  be  secured. 

There  are  three  great  classes,  under  one  of  which  all  the  varieties  of 
description  may  be  arranged.  Under  the  first  class  are  included  all  those 
subjects  which  are  immediately  under  personal  notice ;  which  are  actually 
present  before  our  eyes.  In  the  second  class  may  be  arranged  all  those 
which  have  been  noticed,  but  have  left  only  their  pictures  in  the  memory. 
The  third  class  includes  only  those  subjects  which  are  purely  imaginary. 
In  the  descriptions  of  all  these  classes,  the  object  to  be  effected  is  one  and 
the  same ;  namely,  to  present  to  the  reader  a  picture,  easy  and  natural, 
lively  in  its  character,  and  animated  in  its  appearance ;  msJiing  those  de 
tails  the  most  prominent  which  would  affect  the  beholder  as  most  striking, 
and  throwing,  as  it  were,  into  the  shade  those  circumstances  which  are 
designed  to  produce  a  subordinate  impression.  In  producing  such  an 
effect,  the  writer  should  pay  particular  attention  to  the  epithets  t  with 
which  he  designates  particular  objects,  that  he  may  render  the  impression, 
which  he  designs  that  they  should  convey,  strong  and  durable.  For  this 
reason  he  cannot  be  too  particular  in  the  choice  of  his  qualifying  words, 
for  they  are  sometimes  more  expressive  tlian  the  objects  themselves  when 
presented  in  naked  simplicity. 

Thus,  for  instance,  suppose  we  arc  describing  a  scene  in  a  wood  or 
forest ;  the  follo\ving  terms  would  appropriately  describe  the  appearance 
of  the  scene :  Dark,  obscure,  deep,  dreary,  gloomy,  overcast,  indistinct, 
dim,  cloudy,  den.sc,  lurid,  livid,  &c 

Or  a  summer's  noon ;  the  following  terms  will  be  found  in  most  cases 
suitable :  Bright,  shining,  clear,  lucid,  brilliant,  dazzling,  splendid,  res- 
plendent, sparkling,  refulgent,  ardent,  conspicuous,  clear,  placid,  &c. 

Or  a  storm,  or  a  cataract ;  the  following  terms  >vill  be  found  expressive : 
Hai-sh,  discordant,  roar,  howl,  Ixiss,  crash,  reverberate,  dash,  splash,  mur- 
mur, growl,  clamoroixs,  confused,  terrific,  tremendous,  thundering,  &c. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  description,  also,  in  which  the  following  terms 
may  not  onlv,  with  considerable  advantage,  be  interwoven,  but  the  terms 
tliemselves,  by  tlie  law  of  association,  will  suggest  ideas ;  such  as,  placid, 
calm,   tranquil,    motionless,  iMjaceful,  serene,    restless,  lazy,  unniffled, 


*  See  the  "  Dialogue  between  a  Tutor  and  his  Pupils,"  on  page  8th. 
t  8be  the  articlB  on  epithets. 


AIDS    TO    IbfGLISH    COMPOSITION.  167 

hushed,  silent,  voiceless,  sleeping,  breathless,  transparent,  clear,  wavclesi^ 
engulphed,  unmeasured,  beautiful,  mingled,  crystal,  golden,  silveiy,  mag- 
nificent,  breezeless,  kindred,  &c.,  &c.,  &c. 

Acquaintance  with  the  beauties  of  nature,  particularly  with  those  of  the 
earth  and  the  sky,  and  with  the  lights  and  shadows  of  life,  must  be  considered 
as  a  great  acquisition  to  any  mind;  and  consequently  the  command  of 
language,  so  requisite  to  embody  and  depicture  the  same  with  the  glow 
and  wannth  which  imagination  lends  to  description,  must  be  regarded  as 
an  object  worthy  of  the  highest  regard  by  all  who  aim  at  being  distin- 
guished as  writers.  * 

In  descriptions,  the  principal  point  to  which  to  direct  the  attention  is 
the  selection  of  the  circumstances.  The  scene,  or  the  circumstance, 
should  be  brought  with  distinctness  and  fulness  to  the  view.  We  should 
be  placed,  as  it  were,  by  the  description  in  the  midst  of  the  group  of  par- 
ticulars, and  be  made  fully  acquainted  with  all  its  peculiarities.  That 
which  is  called  truth  to  nature  is  effected  by  the  skilful  selection  and  ar- 
rangement of  the  circumstances,  and  constitutes  the  amplification  of  des- 
criptive writing.  In  some  instances,  especially  where  it  is  desirable  that 
the  description  should  be  bold  and  striking,  the  enumeration  of  circum 
stances  may  be  less  full  and  minute. 

In  describing  natural  scenery,  the  student  will  find  some 


*  Probably  no  writer  has  ever  surpassed  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  the  beauty 
fidelity,  and  accuracy  of  his  descriptions.  The  following  extract,  from  Mr 
Morritt's  "Memorandum,"  taken  from  Lockhart's  Life  of  Sir  Walter,  Vol 
III.,  page  30,  exhibits  his  views,  and  the  pains  that  he  took  to  be  accurate. 
Speaking  of  the  visit  of  the  great  novelist  at  Rokeby,  Mr.  Morritt  says :  "  J 
had  many  previous  opportunities  of  testing  the  almost  conscientious  fidelity 
of  his  local  descriptions ;  but  I  could  not  help  being  singularly  struck  with 
the  lights  which  this  visit  threw  on  that  characteristic  of  his  compositions, 
The  morning  after  he  arrived,  he  said,  *  You  have  often  given  me  materials 
for  a  romance ;  now  I  want  a  good  robber's  cave,  and  an  old  church  of  the 
right  sort.'  We  rode  out,  and  he  found  what  he  wanted  in  the  old  slat-e 
quarries  of  Brignal,  and  the  ruined  Abbey  of  Egglestone.  I  observed  him 
noting  down  even  the  peculiar  little  wild  Jlovjers  and  herbs  that  accidentally 

S-ew  around  and  on  the  side  of  a  bold  crag,  near  his  intended  cave  of  Guy 
enzil ;  and  could  not  help  saying,  that  as  he  was  not  to  be  upon  ©ath  in 
his  work,  daisies^  violets^  and  primroses  would  be  as  poetical  as  any  of  tht 
himibler  plants  he  was  sxamining.  I  laughed,  in  short,  at  his  scrupulous- 
ness ;  but  I  understood  him  when  he  replied,  '  that  in  nature  herself  no  two 
scenes  are  exactly  alike  ;  and  that  wJioever  copied  truly  what  was  before  his 
eyes^  would  possess  the  same  variety  in  his  descriptions,  and  exhibit  appo' 
rently  an  imagination  as  boundless  as  the  range  of  nature  in  the  scenes  he 
recorded;  whereas,  whoever  trusted  to  imagination,  would  soon  find  his 
own  mind  circumscribed  and  contracted  to  a  few  favorite  images,  and  the 
repetition  of  these  would  sooner  or  later  produce  that  very  monotony  and 
barrenness  which  had  always  haunted  descriptive  poetry  in  the  hands  of 
any  but  patient  worshippers  of  truth.  Besides  which,'  he  said,  '  local  names 
and  peculiarities  make  a  fictitious  story  look  so  much  better  in  the  face.' 
In  fact,  from  his  boyish  habits,  he  was  but  half  satisfied  with  the  most  beau 
tiful  scenery  when  he  could  not  connect  with  it  some  local  legend;  and 
when  I  was  forced  sometimes  to  confess,  with  the  knife-grinder,  '  Story  ! 
God  bless  you  !  I  have  none  to  tell,  sir,'  —  he  would  laugh,  and  say, '  Then 
Wt  us  mako  on?,  —  ndthiiTg  so  easy  as  td  make  a  traditiori.' '' 


168        *  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   CCm 


POSITIOH. 


aid  in  the  following  lists  of  particulars,  which  are  here  intro- 
duced as  suggestive  of  ideas,  which  he  himself  is  to  mould  aa 
they  may  arise,  and  combine  with  what  may  spring  sponta- 
neously from  his  own  mind.  * 

A   COUNTRY. 

Its  principal  water  courses : 

Its  chains  of  mountains : 

The  nature  of  the  hills,  whether  more  or  less  rugged ;  the  nature  of  tho 
morasses,  whether  more  or  less  practicable : 

The  rapidity  and  depth  of  the  rivers  ;  the  nature  of  then*  fords,  sluices, 
and  piers ;  the  state  of  the  bridges,  and  their  position :  of  the  roads,  and 
the  necessary  repairs ;  the  reasons  for  preferring  one  road  to  another^ 
v»hich  would  lead  to  the  same  object,  such  as  the  ease  of  procuring  subsist 
cnce,  of  travelling  in  security  —  the  lateral  communications  opening  from 
the  great  or  main  roads  —  the  population  of  the  villages,  occupations  of 
the  inhabitants,  the  means  of  transportation,  the  chief  commerce  of  the 
iniiabitants,  their  industry,  habits,  and  manners  —  the  productions  of  the 
coontry,  quantity  and  kind  —  the  liquors,  vinous  or  spirituous,  with  their 
effects  on  the  inhabitants. 

Op  Kivers  :  Their  direction  —  their  course  —  the  nature  of  their  beds , 
their  breadth  —  their  floods  and  times  of  drought ;  their  meadows,  and 
the  marshes  that  intersect  them ;  the  mills  upon  their  banks ;  the  breadth 
of  their  valleys  —  the  hills  and  ridges  which  skirt  them  —  the  side  on 
which  are  commanding  heights  —  the  tributary  rivulets,  and  the  ravines 
which  open  into  the  valley  of  the  stream  —  the  distance  between  them  j 
of  what  nature  are  the  shrubs,  the  gullies,  the  brooks,  the  roads,  &c.  —  the 
quality  of  the  hedges,  they  are  thin  in  poor  soil,  but  in  rich  land  they  are 
^hick,  and  formidable  objects  to  the  march  of  troops,  &c. 

Canals.  Their  communication  —  the  nature  of  the  ground  through 
^hich  they  are  cut  —  the  means  of  draining  them,  and  of  turning  their 
courses ;  their  locks  —  tlie  mode  of  destroying  and  of  protecting  them  — 
how  their  navigation  may  be  obstructed  or  improved. 

Mills  often  render  water-courses  fordable  or  not,  at  pleasure,  by  meana 
of  tlie  water  dammed  up  for  their  supply.    When  sand  is  of  the  ordinary 


♦  These  lists  of  particulars  are  taken,  with  slight  alterations  necessary  to 
adapt  thorn  to  tlie  purposes  of  this  work,  from  *'  Lallcmand's  Artillery  ber- 
vice,"  article  "  Reconjioitering."  They  wore  original  in  a  work  entitled 
*'  IJaule  m&moire  d,  ftisage  des  offioiers  ttartiUerie  de  Frarice"  par  U  Getieral 
G(tssetuli. 

From  the  dialogue  between  the  tutor  and  his  pupils,  to  which  reference 
has  already  been  made,  the  student  will  derive  some  hints  upon  *'  the  art  of 
iM/'jig,''  or  using  his  eyes  aright.  This  dialogue,  calculated  as  it  is  to 
awaken  attention,  and  to  fix  habits  of  observation,  is  particularlv  recora 
mended  to  the  careful  perusal  of  the  student,  who  would  relieve  his  mind 
from  the  iabon  of  composition.  Habits  of  observation,  attended  with  care- 
ful analv^iSj  not  only  aid  tho  mind  in  its  search  after  ideas,  but  also  direct 
M,'u\  a  Judicious  selection  cf  those  which  are  atlbrdotl  by  association. 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  J  Cf' 

color,  the  roads  are  generally  good ;  but  if  the  sand  be  black,  or  mixed 
with  small  white  grains,  the  roads  are  impassable  in  winter,  and  often  in 
time  of  rain. 

Climate.  The  physical  causes  which  may  affect  health  —  the  quality 
of  the  air,  cold,  hot,  wet,  or  dry ;  seasons  — whether  inclement,  and  how 
long  so  —  the  means  of  protection  from  their  effects  —  the  customs  of  the 
inhabitants  in  this  respect 

Coasts.  The  nature  of  the  coasts  —  whether  lined  -with  sand-hills , 
covci-ed  with  rocks,  which  I'ender  the  approach  more  or  less  dangerous; 
or  precipices,  which  forbid  it  altogether  The  parts  which  are  open  and 
uncovered,  and  proper  for  landing ;  the  bays  which  form  roadsteads  and 
harbors  —  the  points  and  capes  fit  for  forts  and  batteries,  which  may  de- 
fend the  accessible  parts;  the  adjacent  islands,  which  may  serve  as  ad- 
vanced works  to  form  barriers  against  the  attempts  of  an  enemy ;  the 
gulfs,  the  bays,  the  roads,  the  ports  —  the  nature  of  the  winds  required  to 
enter  or  leave  these  ports,  the  nature  and  advantages  of  which  may  be 
pointed  out  —  the  time  of  tide  most  favorable  for  entering  the  ports,  &c. 

—  the  dangers  to  be  met  —  the  obstacles  to  be  surmounted — the  actual 
state  of  the  forts  which  protect  the  coast  —  the  batteries,  the  guard-houses, 
and  the  artillery  in  them ;  if  there  be  rivers  emptying  themselves  on  the 
coasts,  the  tides  are  apt  to  alter  their  channel ;  an  account  may  be  given 
of  tills  influence,  &c. 

FoitESTS  AND  Woods.  Their  situation  —  their  extent;  the  kinds  of 
trees  of  which  they  are  composed,  whether  fit  for  fuel  or  for  timber  — 
their  extent  —  their  magnitude ;  is  the  ground  of  the  forest  level  or  hilly , 
from  whence  do  the  roads  come,  and  whither  do  they  lead  —  their  quality 

—  the  nature  of  the  ground  around  them  —  are  they  near  fields,  meadows, 
ravines,  hills,  mountains,  rivers  —  the  streams,  marshes,  springs,  dwel 
lings,  &c.,  near  them  —  the  distance  of  all  these  objects  from  the  borders 
of  the  wood  or  forest;  the  roads  which  intersect  them,  and  the  swampg 
which  divide  them. 

Houses.  Their  situations  —  style  of  architecture  —  the  ground  which 
they  occupy  —  the  mode  in  which  they  are  built  —  the  materials  of  which 
they  are  composed  —  the  color  given  them  by  nature  or  art  —  are  they 
old  or  new  —  the  indications  of  age  —  moss-grown,  ivy-hung,  black  with 
time  —  appendages  connected  with  ancient  customs  —  their  associations 

—  the  improvements  of  modern  art — additional  conveniences,  &c. 

Level  Country.  Its  hedges,  ditches,  villages,  buildings,  brooks, 
canals,  marshes,  roads,  rivers,  bridges,  &c.  * 

Mountains.    Their  position — their  slopes  in  front  and  rear  —  th 
means  of  reaching  their  summits  —  the  nature  of  the  ground  —  its  form 
— are  they  covered  with  wood  or  with  bare  rocks  —  their  height  —  their 

*  In  Bandy  countries,  and  those  filled  with  brushwood,  there  are  many 
marshes  covered  with  water  during  the  winter,  which  are  almost  dry  in 
summer.   In  the  winter  they  are  impassable,  and  are  to  be  mistrusted,  even 
in  8umm«r,  after  long  rains. 
15 


170  A.IDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

fertility — pastures,  fodder,  vegetation,  dwellings,  towns,  /illages,  castles 
workshops,  roads,  paths,  &c. 

Rivers.  Do  they  branch  off,  or  continue  in  one  undivi(  ed  stream  *  — 
where  do  they  rise  —  whither  do  they  flow  —  what  is  tht  nature  of  th* 
country  through  which  they  flow  —  the  quaUty  of  the  water  —  clear,  spark 
ling,  transparent,  thick,  muddy,  turbid  —  ruflied  with  eddies  and  countei 
currents  —  with  or  without  falls  —  salt  or  fresh,  sweet  or  brackish  —  cold 
or  warm  —  safe  for  bathing,  or  dangerous  —  the  manufactories  moved  bj 
the  water  —  the  canals  running  from  or  into  it  —  the  streams,  brooks 
rivulets,  or  other  rivers  that  supply  it,  &c. 

Villages.  Their  situation  —  the  number  of  fires  or  chimneys  in  oper 
ation  —  the  nature  of  the  soil  —  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  produce  — 
the  occupation  of  the  inhabitants — their  markets — the  neighborhood  which 
frequents  them  — ^the  beasts  of  burden,  the  flocks,  the  beeves  and  poultry 
they  possess  —  the  architecture,  or  style  in  which  the  buildings,  houses 
barns,  and  sheep-cotes  are  built  —  the  position  of  the  church  and  burying 
ground  —  the  blacksmith's  shop  —  whether  surrounded  by  walls,  by 
bushes,  by  ditches,  or  palisades  —  the  water  and  Avind  mills,  t 


*  Rivers  which  divide  into  several  branches,  form  islands  and  peninsulas. 
The  rivers  themselves,  thus  divided,  are  apt  to  change  their  cnannela  at 
every  flood. 

t  In  the  description  of  natural  scenery,  it  will  be  well  for  tie  student  ba 
call  to  memory  those  beautiful  lines  of  Cowper . 

"  Nor  rural  sights  alone,  but  niral  sounds 
Exhilarate  the  spirits,  and  restore 
The  tone  of  languid  nature.     Mighty  winds, 
That  sweep  the  skirt  of  some  far-spreading  wood 
Of  ancient  growth,  make  music  not  unlike 
The  dash  of  Ocean  on  his  winding  shore, 
And  lull  the  spirit,  while  they  fill  the  mind, 
Unnumbered  branches  waving  in  the  blast. 
And  all  their  leaves  fast  fluttering  all  at  once. 
Nor  less  composure  waits  upon  tlie  roar 
Oi  distant  floods  ;  or  on  tlie  softer  voice 
Of  neighbouring  fountain  ;  or  of  rills,  that  slip 
Through  the  cleft  rock,  and  chiming  as  they  tail 
Upon  loose  pebbles,  lose  themselves  at  length 
In  matted  grass,  that  with  a  liveUer  green 
Betrays  the  secret  of  their  silent  course. 

Nature  inanimate  employs  sweet  sounds ; 
But  animated  Jiatiire  sweeter  still. 
To  soothe  and  satisfy  the  human  ear. 
Ten  thousand  warblers  cheer  the  day,  and  one 
The  live-long  night.    Nor  tlieso  alone,  whose  notes 
Nice  fingered  art  must  emulate  in  vain ; 
But  cawing  rooks,  and  kites  that  swim  sublime, 
In  still  repeated  circles,  screaming  loud : 
The  joy  J  ih^pye,  and  e'en  the  boding  owl. 
That  hads  the  rising  moon,  have  charms  for  me. 
Sounds  inhannonious  in  themselves,  and  harsh, 


Yet  heard 
And 


aeard  in  scenes  where  peace  forever  reigns, 
only  there,  please  highly  for  their  sake/' 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  171 

The  particulai-s  which  have  now  been  mentioned  as  suggestive  of  ideas, 
will  undoubtedly  aid  the  student,  and  enable  him  to-  combine  what  ad- 
dresses itself  to  the  eye  with  that  which  suggests  itself  to  the  imagination, 
in  his  endeavors  to  make  verbal  pictures  of  the  beauties  of  nature.  The 
nature  and  vaiiety  of  such  particvdars  must  necessarily  be  dependent  on 
the  character  of  the  object  to  be  described. 

If'  an  individual  sensible  object  is  to  be  described,  the  ques- 
tions which  naturally  arise,  and  which  should  most  of  them  be 
answered  in  the  description,  aye  as  follows : 

Where  is  it  ? 
Who  made  it  ? 
Wliat  is  it  made  of? 
Is  it  old  or  new  1 
What  was  it  made  for  ? 

How  is  it  adapted  for  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  made  ? 
Is  it  beneficial  or  prejudicial  to  tlie  comfort  and  convenience  of  man 
kind? 
Are  its  effects  universal  or  particular  ? 
Its  divisions  and  parts  ? 
Its  dimensions,  form,  and  color  ? 
Does  it  produce,  or  is  it  connected  with  any  sounds  ? 
How  is  it  constructed  ? 
How  does  it  strike  the  eye  ? 
What  are  its  resemblances  or  its  differences  ? 
How  does  it  appear  from  different  positions  ? 

In  addition  to  these  questions,  the  student  must  call  to  mind 
what  others  would  naturally  arise  in  the  mind  of  any  one.  de- 
sirous of  exact  and  particular  information  with  regard  to  the 
subject  of  his  description,  and  endeavor  fully  to  answer  every 
such  question  in  his  written  exercise. 

In  the  description  of  persons,  an  entirely  different  set  of 
questions  will  suggest  the  proper  answers,  to  which  the  des^ 
cription  should  be  a  full  reply. 

What  is  the  personal  appearance,  complexion,  stature,  figure,  &c.; 
bands,  arms,  limbs,  eyes,  &c.  ? 

What  feature  is  most  prominently  conspicuous  ? 

The  expression  of  the  countenance  ? 

Is  the  individual  remarkable  for  manly  beauty  5  or  illy  made,  awkward, 
and  ungraceful  ? 

What  is  the  appearance  of  his  chest,  shoulders ;  length  of  his  limbs, 
Btyle  of  his  dress  ? 

What  are  his  habits,  his  age ;  what  graces,  accomplishments,  or  attain 
oients  has  he  ? 

What  is  his  moral  character  —  his  intellectual ;  who  are  his  associates 
rhat  influence  have  they  wrought  upon  him  ? 

For  what  virtues  or  vices  is  he  particularly  noted  ? 


172  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

In  the  descriptions  of  persons  of  the  other  sex,  such  que* 
tions  raoy  be  a  little  varied,  and  answered  as  in  the  following 
examples : 

DESCRIPTION  OF  PERSONS. 
Example  1st. 

DESCRIPTION    OF   MARY    QUEEN    OF    SCOTTS. 

The  turbulence  of  the  times,  the  rancor  of  party  rage,  and  the  medium 
of  prejudice  or  partiality,  through  which  every  object  in  those  periods  was 
beheld,  render  it  difficult  to  form  a  just  opinion  of  the  character  of  Mary 
Her  personal  accomi)lishments  and  the  graces  which  distinguished  her 
OS  a  woman,  arc  admitted  by  all  parties ;  rcsijecting  these,  therefore,  there 
can  be  no  dispute.  Her  stature  rose  to  the  majestic,  her  form  was  ele- 
gant and  her  hands  and  arms  distinguished  for  their  delicacy  and  beauty. 
Her  hair  was  black,  though,  in  the  fasliion  of  the  times,  she  frequently 
adorned  herself  in  borrowed  locks,  and  of  various  colors.  Her  eyes  were 
dark  gray,  and  her  complexion  remarkably  fine.  She  walked,  danced, 
and  rode,  with  equal  grace.  She  possessed  a  taste  for  music ;  she  played 
upon  the  lute  with  skill,  and  sung  melodiously.  Towards  the  conclusion 
of  her  life,  she  began  to  grow  coi'i)uIent,  while  continement  and  bad  ac- 
commodation brought  upon  her  a  rheumatic  disorder,  which  deprived  her 
of  the  use  of  her  limbs.  Her  manners  were  affable  and  insinuating,  dig- 
nified and  sprightly.  She  spoke  eloquently,  and  wrote  \vith  ease  and 
elegance.  Her  temper  was  warm,  and  her  heart  affectionate.  She 
loved  flattery,  and  beheld  the  effects  of  her  beauty  with  pleasure.  If  she 
had  acquired  the  power  of  dissembling  her  sentiments  in  the  refined  and 
intriguing  court  of  France,  her  nature  was  nevertheless  frank  and  indis- 
posed to  suspicion.  Her  piety  was  fervent  and  sincere ;  her  talents,  if  not 
of  the  highest,  were  undoubtedly  of  a  superior  order ;  and  the  resolution 
and  courage  which  she  manifested  at  her  death,  arc  tmly  wortliy  of  ad- 
miration. A  long  scries  of  successive  sorrows  bespeak,  with  few  excep 
dons,  some  imprudence  in  the  sufferer ;  the  misfortunes  of  Mary,  both 
in  degree  and  diu-ation,  exceeded  the  common  measure  of  human  calami- 
lies,  and  even  render  the  distresses  of  fiction  comparatively  faint.  The 
vicissitudes  of  her  life  have  afforded  a  fine  and  fruitful  subject  for  the 
tragic  muse.  No  man,  says  Bran  tome,  ever  beheld  her  witliout  admira- 
tion and  lore ;  no  one  will  read  her  history  without  pity  and  scrrow.  * 


*  All  writers  agree  in  representing  Mary  of  Scotland  as  distinguished  for  . 
personal  beauty.  But  on  no  subject,  pcrl'iaps,  do  mankind  differ  so  much 
us  in  their  idous  of  female  beauty;  luid  it  seems  to  be  wisely  ordered  by 
Providence  that  they  should  thus  differ.  Women  in  the  Hottentot  country- 
are  consiilered  beautiful  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  thoir  ears,  the  flatness 
of  their  noses  and  the  projection  of  their  lips.  In  Otaheite  corpulency  is 
the  constituent  element  of  loveliness ;  and  in  Cliina,  small  fcet^  cramped 
mto  absolute  deformity,  are  considered  an  indispensable  requisite  lor  beauty. 
A  late  physiological  writer,  speaking  of  female  beauty,  says  :  "  A  woman 
of  any  height,  from  the  petite  almost  to  the  gigantic,  may  be'  perfectlv  beau 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  17S 

Example  2d. 

BERNAKD    DE   ROHAN. 

1  will  attempt  to  paint  him,  to  the  eye  of  the  reader,  as  I  have  myself 
seen  him,  represented  by  the  hand  of  an  unknown  artist,  in  oue  of  the 


tiful ;  and  of  any  complexion,  from  the  darkest  brunette  to  the  faii-est  lily. 
The  medium  height  is  generally  prefen-ed  ;  but  the  complexion  is  a  matter 
that  entirely  depends  on  individual  taste  —  the  same  person,  too,  would  ba 
likely  to  waver  in  choice  between  the  darkly  beautiful  maidens  of  Spain 
and  the  seraphically  fair  daughters  of  Circassia.  Nevertheless,  though  the 
shades  of  complexion,  from  the  Spanish  ohve  to  the  Circassian  white,  or  the 
varieties  of  altitude,  from  the  petite  Cleopatra  to  that  of  the  towering  Rox 
ana,  matters  but  little ;  there  are  many  things  arbitrarily  essential  to  perfect 
beauty  in  woman."  "  I  shall  describe,"  he  continues,  "  a  beautiful  woman, 
taking  her  at  the  medium  altitude,  which  is  generally  preferred." 

As  such  a  description  may  be  interesting  to  many  who  have  not  access 
to  the  original  work,  and  as  it  cannot  be  considered  wholly  out  of  place  in 
a  volume  professing  to  teach  the  art  of  description,  the  author  of  this  vol- 
ume has,  with  some  hesitation,  ventured  here  to  present  it. 

"  Her  height  is  five  feet  five  inches ;  her  hair  is  of  any  color  that  agi'ees 
with  her  complexion  ;  her  forehead  is  rather  low,  and  as  free  from  freckle 
or  wrinkle  as  a  piece  of  Paphian  marble  ;  her  brows  are  dark,  arched,  nar- 
row, and  strongly  defined ;  her  eyes  are  large,  rather  languishing  than 
bright,  and  of  either  of  the  usual  colors ;  for  the  grey  eyes  of  Mary  of  Scot 
land  were  not  less  captivating  than  the  raven  orbs  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba; 
her  eye  lashes  are  dark  and  long ;  her  nose  is  a  mitigated  aquiline,  —  that 
is,  an  aquiline  curtailed  of  its  severity ;  her  lips  are  short  and  small,  and  yet 
withal  full  and  pouting ;  her  chin  is  very  slightly  developed ;  her  ears  are 
small,  thin,  and  with  the  tip  on  a  hne  with  the  eyebrow  ;  her  complexion 
varies  with  the  emotions  of  her  mind,  and  the  blush  that  tinges  her  cheek 
is  delicate,  and  loses  itself  in  her  face,  so  as  to  indicate  no  perceptible  out- 
line ;  her  features  are  exactly  regular,  though  made  to  appear  otherwise  by 
the  ever-varying  expression  of  her  Ups  and  eyes,  and  the  fluctuations  of  the 
rosy  tide  that  ebbs  and  flows  beneath  the  transparent  surface  of  her  skin ; 
her  smile  indicates  sweetness  of  disposition,  blended  with  a  gently-proud 
expression,  dictated  pi'obably  by  the  consciousness  of  her  own  worth  and 
beauty ;  her  neck  is  flexible,  moderately  slender,  of  medium  length,  and 
pure  as  alabaster ;  the  fall  from  her  neck  to  her  shoulders  is  gradual  (like 
that  of  a  bird) ;  her  bust  is  a  gentle  swell,  so  clear  that  the  blue  veins  are 
visible ;  her  shoulders  almost  verge  on  broadness,  and  press  backwards ; 
her  waist  is  small,  but  not  too  taper ;  her  arms  are  rounded ;  her  hands 
delicately  smaU,  and  fingers  rather  long  and  tapered ;  her  instep  is  high,  to 
secure  a  good  arch  to  the  foot,  which  adds  grace  in  walking,  and  her 
feet  are  as  small  as  they  can  possibly  be  without  subjecting  them  to  the 
character  of  diminutive." 

To  this  description  the  same  author  adds,  that  there  are  "  three  species 
of  female  beauty,  of  which  all  the  rest  are  varieties." 

No.  1.  Face  round,  eyes  soft  azm-e ;  neck  rather  short ;  shoulders  mod- 
erately b  Dad  and  gently  rounded ;  limbs  and  arms  tapering  and  delicate ; 
hands  aiid  feet  small ;  complexion,  rose  struggling  with  lily ;  hair  luxuri 
ant,  flaxen  or  auburn ;  eyes  blue,  and  whole  figure  soft  and  easy. 

No.  2.     Oblong  face ;  neck  long  and  tapering ;  shoulders  broad  and  deli 
nate,  without  being  angular ;  limbs  and  arms  rather  long  and  tapering,*  feet 
15* 


174  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

palaces  on  the  banks  of  the  Brenta.  He  was  in  person  about  the  middli 
height,  rather  above  it  than  below,  and  at  this  period  was  not  more  than 
twenty-tliree  years  of  age.  His  forehead  was  broad  and  fine,  with  short 
dark  nair  curling  around  it ;  liis  features  were  small,  excepting  the  eye 
and  brow,  the  former  of  which  was  large  and  full,  and  the  latter  strongly 
marked.  The  mouth  was  very  handsome,  showing,  when  lialf  open  in 
speaking,  the  brilliant  white  teeth,  and  giving  to  the  whole  countenance  a 
look  of  playful  gaiety ;  but,  when  shut,  there  was  an  expression  of  much 
thoughtfulness,  approaching  perhaps  to  sternness,  about  it,  which  the 
rounded  and  somewhat  prominent  chin  coniirmed.  The  upper  lip  was 
very  short;  but  on  either  side,  divided  in  the  middle,  was  a  short  black 
mustache,  not  overhanging  the  mouth,  but  raised  above  it ;  and  the  beard, 
which  was  short  and  black,  like  the  hair,  was  only  suflered  to  grow  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  ornament,  but  not  to  encumber  the  chin. 

In  form  the  cavalier  was  muscular,  and  powerfully  made ;  his  breadth 
of  chest  and  shoulders  giving  the  appearance  of  a  more  advanced  period 
of  life  than  that  to  which  he  had  yet  arrived.* — Corse  De  Leon^  by  G.  P. 
li.  James. 


and  hands  rather  small ;  complexion  mostly  dark  ;  hair  abmidant,  dark  and 
strong;  and  the  whole  figure  precise,  striking,  and  brilliant. 

No.  3.  Oval  face ;  high,  pale,  mtellectual  forehead  ;  eye,  expressive  and 
full  of  sensibility,  also  mdicating  modesty  and  dignity ;  movements  charao 
terized  by  grace  and  elegance. 

*  In  a  note  on  page  172  is  presented,  in  a  quotation  from  a  late  physio 
logical  writer,  the  description  of  a  beautiful  woman.  The  same  author 
thus  describes  a  specimen  of  masculine  beauty : 

"A  fine  looking  man,  (the  word  handsome  detracts  from  the  idea  of 
beauty  in  the  male  sex),  is  above  the  medium  height,  but  considerably  un- 
der the  colossal ;  (about  five  feet  ten  inches  is  the  perfection  of  altitude); 
his  forehead  is  high  and  rather  square ;  his  back  head  is  well  rounded,  but 
not  too  full ;  his  eyes  are  dark,  bright,  and  fairly  set  in  their  sockets  — 
neither  tending  to  recede  nor  to  protrude  ;  his  hair  inclines  to  a  curl ;  his 
eyebrows  are  rather  square  than  bushy,  and  leave  a  space  of  about  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  between  their  inward  extremities ;  his  nose  is  a  medium 
between  Koman  and  aquiline;  his  check  bones  are  not  |  rominont,  but  still 
well  defined  ;  his  cheeks  neither  lank  nor  so  rounded  as  to  indicate  fatness 
or  inflation  ;  his  mouth  moderately  small ;  his  lips  firm,  compact,  but  not 
thin  ;  his  whiskei-a  are  well  back  on  liis  cheek;  his  complexion  is  tmiforra, 
between  brown  and  fair,  with  a  slight  tendency  to  a  blush,  but  not  suffi 
cieut  to  warrant  him  in  being  called  rosy  cheeked ;  and  the  whole  counte- 
■ance,  well  or  oven  strongly  marked  ;  for  a  smooth,  round  face,  where  the 
features  are  all  regular,  ani\"witliout  any  characteristic  for  a  limner  to  fasten 
on,  is  incoinnatiblo  with  manly  beauty.  Then  his  neck  is  of  moder 
ate  length  ana  inclines  to  thickness  ;  his"  throat  is  free  from  all  protuber 
ance  commonly  called  '  t/ie  apple  of  Eve ; '  his  breast  is  fairly  full ;  his 
shoulders  square,  but  not  abniptly  so,  and  sufficiently  broad  to  just  over- 
hang his  hips ;  his  arms  are  of  a  length  to  leave  about  eight  inches  between 
the  tips  of  his  middle  fingers  and  his  knees;  there  is  a  gradual  decrease  in 
wards  from  the  hips  ami  .shoulder  to  the  waist;  his  back  is  free  from  the 
least  tendency  to  roun(iiiess,  but  is  not  thrown  very  much  to  the  rear;  his 
limbs  are  full,  but  not  clumsy ;  his  joints  small ;  the  calves  of  the  legs  so  that 
they  just  touch,  Avithout  pressing  against  each  other ;  his  shin  rather  slen 
der,  his  ankle  small ;  his  instep  high  ;  and  his  foot  sliglitlv  hollowed,  and  of 
a  size  corresponding  wth  his  height;  for,  too  small  a  foot  interferes  with 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITldW.  175 

Example  Bd, 

THE   ELEPHANT. 

The  elephant,  a  native  of  Asia  and  Africa,  is  the  largest,  the  strongest, 
the  most  sagacious,  and  the  most  docile  of  all  wild  beasts.  The  usual 
height  of  tills  unsightly  creature  is  from  eight  to  twelve  or  fourteen  feet. 
The  color  is  nearly  black  5  the  eyes,  which  are  very  small,  are  hvely, 
bright,  and  expressive  ;  the  ears  are  broad,  and  much  longer,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  body,  than  those  of  the  ass. 

It  has  two  long  ivory  tusks,  thicker  toward  the  head  than  a  stout 
man's  arm,  and  a  trunk  which  it  can  contract  or  lengthen,  as  need  re- 
quires. The  latter  is  as  useful  to  the  animal  as  our  hands  are  to  us. 
With  this  singular  organ  it  can  take  up  the  smallest  object ;  it  serves 
tself  with  it ;  and,  in  case  of  an  attack,  fights  with  it.  It  can  also  untie 
Knots  of  ropes,  and  open  and  shut  gates. 

The  legs  of  this  stupendous  quadruped  are  like  columns  of  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  four  to  six  feet  high. 
The  feet  are  short,  and  divided  into  five  toes  each,  and  are  armed  witli 
nails  of  a  horny  substance,  but  which  are  so  covered  with  skin,  that  they 
are  scarcely  visible. 

The  elephant,  in  a  state  of  nature,  is  neither  fierce  nor  mischievous.  It 
ts  peaceable,  mild,  and  brave  ;  and  exerts  its  powers  only  in  its  own 
defence,  or  in  defence  of  those  of  its  own  kind,  with  which  it  is  social  and 
friendly. 

Example  Uh, 

NATURAL    SCENERY. 

Long  projecting  reefs  of  rocks,  extending  under  water,  and  only  evmc 
tag  their  existence  by  here  and  there  a  peak  entirely  bare,  or  by  the 
breakers  which  foamed  over  those  that  were  partially  covered,  rendered 
Knockwinnock  bay  dreaded  by  pilots  and  ship-masters.  The  crags  which 
rose  between  the  beach  and  the  main  land  to  the  height  of  two  or  three 
hundred  feet,  afforded  in  their  crevices  shelter  for  unnumbered  sea  fowl, 
in  situations  seemingly  secured  by  their  dizzy  height  from  the  rapacity  of 


that  elasticity  of  step,  and  firmness  of  carriage,  so  essential  in  making  up 
the  perfect  '■tmtt  ensemble''  of  a  well-proportioned  man." 

In  descriptions  of  persons  the  student  will  do  well  to  refer  to  what  is  said 
on  the  subject  of  epithets  in  another  page  of  this  volume.  Thus,  for  exam- 
ple, the  mo/nners  of  an  individual  may  be  insinuating,  sprightly,  dignified, 
or  reserved,  &;c. ;  speech,  elegant,  eloquent,  &c. ;  person,  thin  or  spare,  fleshy 
or  corpulent;  temper,  warm  and  affectionate;  nature,  frank  and  indis- 
posed to  suspicion,  &c.  Notice  may  also  be  taken,  as  occasion  requires,  of 
such  particulars  as  the  following:  resolution,  courage,  effects  of  air  and 
exercise,  or  confinement  and  exclusion  from  the  air,  on  personal  appear- 
ance, —  series  of  sorrows  as  causing  imprudence,  constant  success  as  pro- 
ducing temerity,  —  misfortunes  in  degree  and  duration  exceeding  the  com 
?non  measure  of  human  calamity,  rendsring  the  distresses  of  fiction  faint, 
&c.,  &c.,  &c. 


176  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

man.  Many  of  these  wild  tribes,  -with  the  instinct  which  sends  them  to 
seek  the  land  before  a  storm  arises,  were  now  winging  towards  their  ncsta 
with  the  shrill  and  dissonant  clang  which  announces  fear  and  disquietude. 
The  disk  of  the  sun  became  almost  totally  obscured  ere  he  had  alto- 
getlier  sunk  below  the  horizon,  and  an  early  and  lurid  shr.de  of  darkness 
blotted  the  serene  twilight  of  a  summer  evening.  The  wind  began  next 
to  arise,  but  its  wild  and  moaning  sound  was  heard  for  some  time,  and 
its  effects  became  more  visible  on  the  bosom  of  the  sea,  before  tlie  galo 
was  felt  on  the  shore.  The  mass  of  waters,  now  dark  and  threatening, 
began  to  lift  itself  in  larger  ridges,  and  sink  in  deeper  furrows,  forming 
waves  that  rose  high  in  loam  upon  the  breakers,  or  burst  upon  the  beach 
with  a  sound  resembling  distant  thunder. — Antiquary^  Vol.  I.  p.  72. 

Example  5th. 

NATURAL    SCENERY. 

Cities  and  villages  were  scattered  over  hill  and  valley,  with  cultivated 
environs  blooming  around  them,  all  giving  token  of  a  dense  and  indus- 
trious poiulation.  In  the  centre  of  this  brilliant  circumference  stood  the 
Indian  metropolis,  with  its  gorgeous  tiara  of  pyramids  and  temples,  at- 
tracting the  eye  of  the  soldier  from  every  other  object,  as  he  wound  round 
the  borders  of  the  lake.  Every  inch  of  ground  which  the  soldiers  trod 
was  familiar  to  them ;  familiar  as  the  scenes  of  childhood,  though  with 
very  different  associations,  for  it  had  been  written  on  their  memories  in 
characters  of  blood.  On  the  right  rose  the  hill  of  Montezuma,  cro\vned 
by  the  teocalli,  under  the  roof  of  wliich  the  shattered  relics  of  the  army 
had  been  gathered  on  the  day  following  the  flight  from  the  capitol.  In 
front  lay  the  city  of  Tacuba,  through  whose  inRospitable  streets  they 
had  hurried  in  fear  and  consternation ;  and  away  to  the  east  of  it 
stretched  the  melancholy  causeway. — Prescott^s  Conquest  of  Manco^  Vol 
TIL  ;).  31. 

Example  Qth. 

NATURAL    SCENEHY. 

They  moved  cautiously  forward,  straining  their  vision  to  pierce  the 
think  gloom  of  the  forests,  where  tlieir  wily  foe  might  bo  lurking.  But 
they  saw  no  living  thing,  except  only  the' wild  inhabitants  of  the  woods 
and  flocks  of  the  zopoUtc,  the  voracious  vulture  of  tlio  country,  which,  in 
anticipation  of  a  bloody  banquet,  hung  like  a  troop  of  evil  spirits,  on  the 
march  of  the  army. 

As  they  descended,  the  Spaniards  felt  a  sensible  and  most  welcoma 
change  in  the  atmosphere.  The  character  of  the  vegetation  changed  with 
it ;  and  the  funereal  pine,  their  only  companion  of  late,  gave  way  to  the 
sturdy  oak,  to  the  sycamore,  and  lower  down,  to  the  graceful' pepper 
tree,  mingling  its  red  berries  with  the  dark  foliage  of  tlie  forest;  while 
in  still  lower  depths,  the  gaudy-colored  creepers  might  be  seen  flinging 
their  gay  blossoms  over  the  branches,  and  telling  of  a  softer  and  more 
luxurious  climate. 

At  length,  the  army  emerged  on  an  open  level,  where  the  eye,  unob 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  177 

Btracted  by  intervening  wood  or  hill-top,  could  range,  far  and  wide,  ovei 
the  Valley  of  Mexico.  There  it  lay,  bathed  in  the  golden  sunshine, 
stretched  out,  as  it  were,  in  slumber,  in  the  arms  of  the  giant  of  hills, 
which  clustered,  like  a  phalanx  of  guardian  genii,  around  it.  *  —  Conquest 
of  Mexico,  Vol.  11,  p.  463. 

From  the  same  source  from  which  the  preceding  extract  was 
taken,  the  following  personal  description  has  been  borrowed 

HERNANDO    CORTES. 

Hernando  "  Cortes  at  this  time  was  thirty-three,  or  perhaps  thirty-four 
years  of  age.  In  stature  he  was  rather  above  the  middle  size.  His  com- 
plexion was  pale,  and  his  large  dark  eye  gave  an  expression  of  gravity  to 
his  countenance,  not  to  be  expected  in  one  of  his  cheerful  temperament. 
His  figure  was  slender,  at  least  until  later  life ;  but  his  chest  wa*  deep,  his 
shoulders  broad,  his  frame  muscular  and  well  proportioned.  It  presented 
the  union  of  agility  and  vigor,  which  qualified  him  to  excel  in  fencing- 
horsemanship,  and  the  other  generous  exercises  of  chivalry.  In  his  diet 
he  was  temperate,  careless  of  what  he  ate,  and  drinking  little ;  while,  to 
toil  and  privation  he  seemed  perfectly  indifferent.  His  dress,  for  he  did 
not  disdain  the  impression  produced  by  such  adventitious  aids,  was  such 
as  to  set  off  his  handsome  person  to  advantage ;  neither  gaudy  nor  strik- 
ing, but  rich.  He  wore  few  ornaments,  and  usually  the  same ;  but  these 
were  of  gi'cat  price.  His  manners  frank  and  soldierlike,  concealed  a  most 
cool  and  calculating  spirit.  With  his  gayest  humor  there  mingled  a  settled 
air  of  resolution,  which  made  those  who  approached  him  feel  they  must 
obey ;  and  which  infused  sometliing  like  awe  into  the  attachment  of  his 
most  devoted  followers.  Such  a  combination,  in  which  love  was  tempered 
by  authority,  was  the  one  probably  best  calculated  to  inspire  devotion  in 
the  rough  and  turbulent  spirits  among  whom  his  lot  was  to  be  cast." 

*  The  introduction  of  figurative  language  in  descriptive  writing,  if  not 
too  luxuriantly  indulged,  adds  much  to  the  beauty  and  animation  of  the 
Btyle.  The  student  will  not  fail  to  admire  the  beautiful  figure  here  introduced 
from  one  of  the  most  elegant  historical  writers  of  any  age  or  country.  Mr, 
Prescott,  in  the  work  from  which  the.  extract  above  was  taken,  has  conferred 
a  favor  on  the  republic  of  letters,  which  will  hand  him  down  to  posterity  as 
the  modern  "  Dulcis  et  candidus  et  fastis  Herodotus.''''  The  same  remark 
♦^^hat  has  been  made  in  relation  to  the  Father  of  History,  may  be  applied 
with  equal  truth  and  justice  to  the  author  of  "  Tlie  Conquest  of  Mexico.'''' 
"  His  style  abounds  with  elegance,  ease,  and  sweetness ;  and  if  there  is  any 
of  the  fabulous  or  incredible,  the  author  candidly  informs  the  reader  that  ^t 
is  introduced  on  the  authority  of  others."  They  who  are  not  attracted  by 
the  thrilling  nature  of  the  incidents  which  he  relates,  will  be  captivated  by 
the  glowing  colors  in  which  they  are  described,  the  purity  and  animation 
of  his  style  the  witchery  he  has  woven  around  his  subject,  and  the  won- 
derful skill  with  which  he  has  thrown  into  a  connected  narrative  a  mass  of 
details,  which  with  indefatigable  industry  he  has  tithed  from  a  great  variety 
of  authors,  often  at  variance  with  one  another,  and  not  unfrequently  at  issue 
with  themselves.  The  pride  with  which  an  American  peruses  his  works, 
naturally  breaks  forth  into  the  apostrophe,  "  Perge  modo,  et  qu4  te  via  duel* 
dirige  gressurm." 


178  -A.IDS   TO    I»fGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

The  character  of  Cortes  seems  to  have  undergone  some 
change  with  change  of  circumstances  ;  or,  to  speak  more  cor- 
rectly, the  new  scenes  in  which  he  was  placed  called  forth 
qualities  which  before  were  dormant  in  his  bosom.  There 
are  some  hardy  natures  that  require  the  heats  of  excited  action 
to  unfold  their  energies ;  like  the  plants,  which,  closed  to  the 
mild  influence  of  a  temperate  latitude,  come  to  their  full 
growth,  and  give  forth  their  fruits  only  in  the  burning  atmos- 
phere of  the  tropics.  Such  is  the  portrait  left  to  us  by  lus 
contemporaries  of  this  remarkable  man. 

The  examples  which  have  now  been  introduced  are  deemed 
sufficient,  both  in  variety  and  extent,  to  introduce  the  student 
to  descriptive  writing.  The  attentive  perusal  of  the  examples 
given,  with  careful  attention  to  the  preliminary  hints  and  ob- 
servations, it  is  thought  will  furnish  considerable  aid  in  this 
department  of  composition. 


Lxni. 

NARRATION  AND  DESCRIPTION  UNITED. 

That  the  student  may  perceive  how  much  is  added  to  the 
beauty  and  the  interest  of  a  narration  by  the  union  of  des- 
cription with  the  narrative,  the  following  model  is  presented, 
which  is  founded  on  the  simple  circumstance,  that  a  young 
man  in  a  feeble  state  of  health  is  called  home,  after  a  long 
absence,  to  be  present  at  the  death-bed  of  his  mother.  The 
Btudent  will  observe  how  beautifully  many  of  the  particulars 
presented  in  the  list  in  the  preceding  exercises  are  interwoven 
with  the  narrative,  and  how  much  the  union  of  description 
with  the  narration  has  added  to  the  beauty  of  the  story. 

Example. 

In  looking  over  some  papers  of  a  deceased  acquaintance,  I  found  the 
following  fragment.  He  had  frequently  spoken  to  me  of  the  person  whom 
it  concerned,  and  wlio  liad  been  his  school-fellow.  I  remember  well  his  one 
day  telling  me  that,  thinking  the  character  of  his  friend,  and  some  circum 
stances  in  his  life,  were  of  such  a  kind  that  an  interesting  moral  little  story 
might  be  made  from  tlicm,  he  had  undertaken  it;  but,  considering  as  he 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  179 

was  going  on,  that  bringing  the  private  character  and  feelings  of  a  deceased 
friend  before  the  world,  was  something  like  sacrilege,  though  done  under  a 
fictitious  name,  he  had  stopped  soon  after  beginning  the  tale,  —  that  he 
had  laid  it  away  amongst  his  papers,  and  had  never  looked  at  it  again. 

As  the  person  it  concerns  has  been  a  long  time  dead,  and  no  relation  sur 
vives,  I  do  not  feel  that  there  can  be  any  impropriety  in  my  now  making 
it  public.  I  give  it  as  it  was  written,  though  evidently  not  revised  by  my 
friend.  Though  hastily  put  together,  and  beginning  as  abruptly  as  it  ends, 
and  with  little  of  story  and  no  novelty  in  the  circumstances,  yet  there  is  a 
mournful  tenderness  in  it,  wliich,  I  trust,  will  interest  others  in  some  por 
tion  as  it  did  me.  

"  The  sun  not  set  yet,  Thomas  ?  "  "  Not  quite,  Sir.  It  blazes  through 
the  trees  on  the  hill  yonder,  as  if  their  branches  were  all  on  fire." 

Ax'thur  raised  himself  heavily  forward,  and  with  his  hat  still  over  his 
brow,  turned  his  glazed  and  dim  eyes  towards  the  setting  sun.  It  was  only 
the  night  before  that  he  had  heard  his  mother  was  ill,  and  could  survive 
but  a  day  or  two.  He  had  lived  nearly  apart  from  society,  and,  being  a  lad 
of  a  thoughtful,  dreamy  mind,  had  made  a  world  to  himself  His  thoughts 
and  feeUngs  were  so  much  in  it,  that,  except  in  relation  to  his  own  home, 
there  were  the  same  vague  and  strange  notions  in  his  brain  concerning  the 
state  of  things  surrounding  him,  as  we  have  of  a  foreign  land. 

The  main  feeling  which  this  self-made  world  excited  in  him  was  love, 
and,  like  most  of  his  age,  he  had  formed  to  himself  a  being  suited  to  his 
own  fancies.  This  was  the  romance  of  life,  and  though  men,  with  minds 
like  his,  make  imagination  to  stand  oftentimes  in  the  place  of  real  exist 
ence,  and  to  take  to  itself  as  deep  feeling  and  concern,  yet  in  domestic  re- 
lations, which  are  so  near,  and  usual,  and  private,  they  feel  longer  and 
more  deeply  than  those  who  look  upon  their  homes  as  only  a  better  part  of 
the  World  to  which  they  belong.  Indeed,  in  affectionate  and  good  men  of  a 
visionary  cast,  it  is  in  some  sort  only  realizing  their  hopes  and  desires,  to 
turn  them  homeward.  Arthur  felt  that  it  was  so,  and  he  loved  his  house 
hold  the  more  that  they  gave  him  an  earnest  of  one  day  realizing  all  his 
hopes  and  attachments. 

Arthur's  mother  was  peculiarly  dear  to  him,  in  having  a  character  so 
much  like  his  own.  For  though  the  cares  and  attachments  of  life  had  long 
ago  taken  place  of  a  fanciful  existence  in  her,  yet  her  natural  turn  of  mind 
was  strong  enough  to  give  to  these  something  of  the  romance  of  her  dispo 
fiition.  This  had  led  to  a  more  than  usual  openness  and  intimacy  between 
Arthur  and  his  mother,  and  now  brought  to  his  remembrance  the  hours 
they  had  sat  together  by  the  firelight,  when  he  listened  to  her  mild  and 
melanoholy  voice,  as  she  spoke  of  what  she  had  undergone  at  the  loss  ot 
her  parents  and  husband.  Her  gentle  rebuke  of  his  faufts,  her  afl'ectionate 
look  of  approval  when  he  had  done  well,  her  care  that  he  should  be  a  just 
man,  and  her  mothex-ly  anxiety  lest  the  world  should  go  hard  with  him,  all 
crowded  into  his  mind,  and  he  thought  that  every  worldly  attachment  was 
hereafter  to  be  a  vain  thing. 

He  had  passed  the  night  between  violent,  tumultuous  grief,  and  numb 
insensibility.  Stepping  mto  the  carriage,  with  a  slow,  weak  motion,  like 
one  who  was  quitting  his  sick  chamber  for  the  first  time,  he  began  his 
journey  homeward.  As  he  hfted  his  eyes  upward,  the  few  stars  that  were 
here  and  there  over  the  sky  seemed  to  look  down  in  pity,  and  shed  a  re 
ligious  and  healing  light  upon  him.  But  they  soon  went  out,  one  after 
another,  and  as  the  last  faded  from  his  imploring  sight,  it  was  as  if  every  thing 
good  and  holy  had  forsaken  him.  The  faint  tint  in  the  east  soon  became  a 
ruddy  glow,  and  the  sun,  shooting  upward,  burst  over  every  living  thing  in 
full  glory.  The  sight  went  to  Arthur's  sick  heart,  as  if  it  were  in  mockerv 
Oi'his  misery. 


180  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Leaning  back  in  his  carriage,  with  his  hand  over  his  eyes,  he  was  carried 
along,  hardly  sensible  it  was  day.  The  old  servant,  Thomas,  who  was  sit- 
ting by  his  side,  went  on  talking  in  a  low,  monotons  tone  ;  but  Arthur  only 
heard  something  sounding  in  his  ears,  scarcely  heeding  that  it  was  a  human 
voice.  He  had  a  sense  of  wearisomeness  from  the  motion  of  the  carriage, 
but  in  all  things  else  the  day  passed  as  a  melancholy  dream. 

Almost  the  first  words  Arthur  spoke  were  those  I  have  mentioned.  As 
he  looked  out  upon  the  setting  sun,  he  shuddered  through  his  whole  frame, 
and  then  became  sick  and  pale.  lie  thought  he  knew  the  hill  near  him ; 
and,  as  they  wound  round  it,  some  peculiar  old  trees  appeared,  and  he  was 
in  a  few  mniutes  in  the  midst  of  the  scenery  near  his  home.  The  river  be- 
fore him  reflecting  the  rich  evening  sky,  lOoked  as  if  poured  out  from  a 
molten  mine.  The  birds,  gathering  in,  were  shooting  across  each  other, 
bursting  into  short,  gay  notes,  or  singing  their  evening  songs  in  the  trees. 
It  was  a  bitter  thing  to  find  all  so  bright  and  cheerful,  and  so  near  his  own 
home  too.  His  horses'  hoofs -struck  upon  the  old  wooden  bridge.  The 
sound  went  to  his  heart.  It  was  here  his  mother  took  her  last  leave  of  him, 
and  blessed  him. 

As  he  passed  through  the  village,  there  was  a  feeling  of  strangeness,  that 
every  thing  should  be  just  as  it  was  when  he  left  it.  There  was  an  unde 
fined  thought  floating  in  his  mind,  that  his  mother's  state  should  produce  a 
visible  change  in  all  that  he  had  been  familiar  with.  But  the  boys  were  at 
their  noisy  games  in  the  street,  the  laborers  returning,  talking  together, 
from  their  work,  and  the  old  men  sitting  quietly  at  their  doors.  He  con 
cealed  himself  as  well  as  he  could,  and  bade  Thomas  hasten  on. 

As  they  drew  near  the  house,  the  night  was  shutting  in  about  it,  and  there 
was  a  melancholy,  gusty  sound  in  the  trees.  Arthur  felt  as  if  approaching 
his  mother's  tomb.  lie  entered  the  parlor.  All  was  as  gloomy  and  still  as 
a  deserted  house.  Presently  he  heard  a  slow,  cautious  step  over  head.  It 
was  in  his  mother's  chamber.  His  sister  had  seen  him  from  the  window. 
She  hurried  down  and  threw  her  arms  about  her  brother's  neck,  without 
uttering  a  word.  As  soon  as  he  could  speak,  he  asked,  "  Is  she  alive  ?  "  — 
he  could  not  say,  my  mother.  '  She  is  sleeping,"  answered  his  sister,  '*  and 
must  not  know  to-night  that  you  are  here  ;  she  is  too  weak  to  bear  it  now." 
"  I  will  go  look  at  her,  then,  while  she  sleeps,"  said  he,  drawing  his  hand 
kerchief  from  his  face.  His  sister's  sympathy  had  made  him  shed  the  first 
tears  which  had  fallen  from  him  that  day,  and  he  was  more  composed. 

He  entered  the  chamber  with  a  deep  and  still  awe  upon  him  ;  and  as  he 
drew  near  his  mother's  bed  side,  and  looked  on  her  pale,  placid,  and  mo- 
tionless face,  he  scarcely  dared  breathe,  lest  he  should  disturb  the  secret 
communion  that  the  soul  was  holding  with  the  world  into  wliich  it  was 
about  to  enter.  The  loss  that  he  was  about  suffering,  and  his  heavy  grief, 
wqre  all  forgotten  in  the  feeling  of  a  holy  inspiration,  and  he  was,  as  it 
were,  in  the  midst  of  invisible  spirits,  ascending  and  descending.  His 
mother's  lips  moved  slightly,  as  she  uttered  an  indistinct  sound.  He  drew 
back,  and  Ids  sister  went  near  to  her,  and  she  spoke.  It  waa  the  same 
gentle  voice  which  he  had  known  and  felt  from  his  childhood.  The  exal- 
tation of  his  soul  left  liim,  —  he  sunk  down,  —  and  his  misery  went  over 
him  like  a  flood. 

The  next  day,  as  soon  as  his  mother  became  composed  enough  to  see 
him,  Arthur  went  into  her  chamber.  She  stretched  out  htr  feeble  hand, 
and  turned  towards  him,  with  a  look  that  blessed  him.  It  was  the  short 
struggle  of  a  meek  spirit.  She  covered  her  eyes  with  her  hand,  and  the 
tears  trickled  down  between  her  pale,  thin  fingers.  As  soon  as  she  became 
tranquil,  she  spoke  of  the  gratitude  she  felt  at  being  ppared  to  see  him  be- 
fore sne  died. 

"  My  dear  mother,"  said  Arthur,  —  but  he  could  not  go  on.  His  voice 
was  choked,  his  eyes  filled  with  tears,  and  the  agony  of  his  sool  waa  visible 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPaSITlON.  181 

In  his  face.  "  Do  not  be  so  afflicted,  Arthur,  at  the  loss  of  me.  We  are 
not  to  part  for  ever.  Eemember,  too,  how  comfortable  and  happy  you  have 
made  my  days.  Heaven,  I  know,  will  bless  so  good  a  son  as  you  have  been 
to  me.  You  will  have  that  consolation,  my  son,  which  visits  but  a  few, — 
you  will  be  able  to  look  back  upon  your  past  conduct  to  me,  not  without 
pain  only,  but  with  a  holy  joy.  And  think,  hereafter,  of  the  peace 
of  mind  you  give  me,  now  that  I  am  about  to  die,  in  the  thought  that  I  am 
leaving  your  sister  to  your  love  and  care.  So  long  as  you  live,  she  will 
find  y  :u  a  father  and  brother  to  her."  She  paused  for  a  moment.  "  I  have 
always  felt  that  I  could  meet  death  with  composure  ;  but  I  did  not  know," 
she  said,  with  a  tremulous  voice,  her  lips  quivering,  —  "I  did  not  know 
how  hard  a  thing  it  would  be  to  leave  my  children,  till  now  that  the  hour 
has  come." 

After  a  little  while,  she  spoke  of  his  father,  and  said,  she  had  lived  with 
the  belief  that  he  was  mindful  of  her,  and  with  the  conviction,  which  grew 
stronger  as  death  approached,  that  she  should  meet  him  in  another  world. 
She  said  but  little  more,  as  she  grew  weaker  and  weaker  every  hour.  Ar 
thur  sat  by  in  silence,  holding  her  hand.  He  saw  that  she  was  sensible  he 
was  watching  her  countenance,  for  every  now  and  then  she  opened  her  dull 
eye,  and  looked  towards  him,  and  endeavored  to  smile. 

Th(^,  day  wore  slowly  awav.  The  sun  went  down,  and  the  melancholy 
and  still  twilight  came  on.  Nothing  was  heard  but  the  ticking  of  the  watch, 
telling  him  with  a  resistless  power  that  the  hour  was  drawing  nigh.  He 
gasped,  as  if  under  some  invisible,  gigantic  grasp,  which  it  was  not  for  hu 
man  strength  to  struggle  against. 

It  was  now  quite  dai'k,  and  by  the  pale  light  of  the  night-lamp  in  the 
chimney  corner,  the  furniture  in  the  room  threw  huge  and  uncouth  figures 
over  the  walls.  All  was  unsubstantial  and  visionary,  and  the  shadowy 
ministers  of  death  appeared  gathering  round,  waiting  the  duty  of  the  hour 
appointed  them.  Arthur  shuddered  for  a  moment  with  superstitious  awe ;  but 
the  solemn  elevation  which  a  good  man  feels  at  the  sight  of  the  dying  took 
possession  of  liim,  and  he  became  calm  agaiV 

The  approach  of  death  has  oo  much  ^which  is  exalting,  that  our  grief 
is,  for  the  time,  forgotten.  And  could  one  who  had  seen  Arthur  a  few  hours 
before,  now  have  looked  upon  the  grave  and  grand  repose  of  his  countenonce, 
ne  would  hardly  have  known  him. 

The  livid  hue  of  death  was  fast  spreading  over  his  mother's  face.  He 
stooped  forward  to  catch  the  sound  of  her  breathing.  It  grew  quick  and 
faint.  —  "  My  mother."  —  She  opened  her  eyes,  for  the  last  time,  upon  him, 
—  a  faint  flush  passed  over  her  cheek,  —  there  was  the  serenity  of  an  angel 
in  her  look,  —  her  hand  just  pressed  his.    It  was  all  over. 

His  spirit  had  endured  to  its  utmost.  It  sunk  down  from  its  unearthly 
height ;  and  with  his  face  upon  his  mother's  pillow,  he  wept  like  a  child. 
He  arose  with  a  violent  effort,  and  stepping  into  the  adjoining  chamber, 
spoke  to  his  aunt.  "  It  is  past,"  said  he.  "  Is  my  sister  asleep  ?  —  Well, 
then,  let  her  have  rest ;  she  needs  it.'  He  then  went  to  his  own  chamber, 
and  shut  himself  in. 

It  is  a  merciful  thing  that  the  intense  suffering  of  sensitive  minds  makes 
to  itself  a  relief.  Violent  grief  brings  on  a  torpor,  and  an  indistinctness, 
and  dimness,  as  from  long  watching.  It  is  not  till  the  violence  of  affliction 
has  subsided,  and  gentle  and  soothing  thoughts  can  find  room  to  mix  with 
our  sorrow,  and  holy  consolations  can  minister  to  us,  that  we  are  able  to 
know  fully  our  loss,  and  see  clearly  what  has  been  torn  away  from  our  af 
fections.  It  was  so  with  Arthur.  Unconnected  and  strange  thoughts,  witt 
melancholy  but  half-formed  images,  were  floating  in  his  mind,  and 
now  and  then  a  gleam  of  light  would  pass  thi-ough  it,  as  if  he  had  been  in  a 
troubled  trance,  and  all  was  right  again.  His  worn  and  tired  feelings  ai 
last  found  rest  in  sleep 

16 


182  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

It  18  an  impression,  which  we  cannot  rid  ourselves  of  if  we  would,  when 
sitting  by  the  body  of  a  friend,  that  he  has  still  a  consciousness  of  our  pres- 
ence, —  that  though  the  common  concerns  of  the  world  have  no  more  to  do 
with  him,  he  hsus  still  a  love  and  care  of  us.  The  face  which  we  had  so  long 
been  familiar  with,  when  it  was  all  life  and  motion,  seems  only  in  a  state  ot 
rest.  We  know  not  how  to  make  it  real  to  ourselves,  that  the  body  before 
US  is  not  a  living  thing. 

Arthur  was  in  such  a  state  of  mind,  as  he  sat  alone  in  the  room  by  his 
mother,  the  day  after  her  death.  It  was  as  if  her  soul  had  been  in  paradise, 
and  was  now  holding  communion  with  pure  spirits  there,  though  it  still 
abode  in  the  body  uiat  lay  before  him.  He  felt  as  if  sanctified  by  the 
presence  of  on**  to  whom  the  other  world  had  been  laid  open,  —  as  if  under 
the  love  and  })rDcection  of  one  made  holy.  The  religious  reflections  that 
his  mother  had  early  taught  him,  gave  him  strength  ;  a  spiritual  composure 
stole  over  him,  and  he  found  himself  prepared  to  perfonn  the  last  oflBces  to 
the  dead. 

It  is  not  enough  to  see  our  friends  die,  and  part  with  them  for  the  remain 
der  of  our  days,  —  to  reflect  that  we  shall  hear  their  voices  no  more,  and  that 
they  will  never  look  on  us  again,  —  to  see  that  turning  to  corruption  which 
was  but  just  now  alive,  and  eloquent,  and  beautiful  with  all  the  sensations 
of  the  soul.  Are  our  sorrows  so  sacred  and  peculiar  as  to  make  the  world 
as  vanity  to  us,  and  the  men  of  it  as  strangers,  and  shall  we  not  be  leh  to 
our  afflictions  for  a  few  hours  ?  Must  we  be  brought  out  at  such  a  time  to 
the  concerned  or  careless  gaze  of  those  we  know  not,  or  be  made  to  bear  the 
formal  proffers  of  consolation  from  acquaintances  who  will  go  away  and 
forget  it  all  ?  Shall  we  not  be  suffered  a  little  while  a  holy  and  healing 
communion  with  the  dead?  Must  the  kindred  stillness  and  gloom  of  our 
dwelling  be  changed  for  the  solemn  show  of  the  pall,  the  talk  of  the 
passers-by,  and  the  broad  and  piercing  light  of  the  common  sun  ?  Must 
the  ceremonies  of  the  world  wait  on  us  even  to  the  open  graves  of  our 
friends  ? 

When  the  hour  came,  Arthur  rose  with  a  firm  step  and  fixed  eye,  though 
his  whole  face  was  tremulous  with  the  struggle  within  him.  rfe  went  to 
his  sister,  and  took  her  arm  within  his.  The  bell  struck.'  Its  heavy,  un 
dulating  sound  rolled  forward  like  a  sea.  He  felt  a  violent  beating  through 
his  whole  frame,  which  shook  him  that  he  reeled.  It  was  but  a  momentary 
weakness.  He  moved  on,  passing  those  who  surrounded  him,  as  if  they 
had  been  shadows.  While  he  followed  the  slow  hearse^  there  was  a  vacan 
cy  in  his  eye  as  it  rested  on  the  coffin,  which  showed  hun  hardly  conscious 
of  what  was  before  him.  His  spirit  was  with  his  mother's.  Ashe  reached 
the  grave,  ho  shrunk  back  and  turned  deadly  pale  ;  but  sinking  his  head 
upon  his  breast,  and  drawing  his  hat  over  his  'face,  he  stood  motionless  as  a 
statue  till  the  service  was  over. 

He  had  gone  through  all  that  the  forms  of  society  required  of  him. 
For,  as  painful  as  the  effort  was,  and  as  little  suited  as  such  forms  were  to 
bis  own  thoughts  upon  the  subject,  yet  he  could  not  do  any  thing  that  might 
nnpcar  to  the  world  like  a  want  of  reverence  and  respect  for 'lis  mother. 
'1  he  scene  was  ended,  and  the  inward  stnigglo  over ;  and  now  that  he  was 
left  to  himself,  the  greatness  of  his  loss  came  up  full  and  distinctly  before 
him. 

It  was  a  dreary  and  chilly  evening  when  he  returned  home.  When  he 
entered  the  house  from  which  his  mother  had  gone  for  ever,  a  sense  oi 
dreary  emptiness  oppressed  him,  ait  if  his  very  abode  had  been  deserted  by 
every  living  thing.  He  walked  into  his  mother's  chamber.  The  naked 
bedstead,  and  the  chair  in  wliich  she  used  to  sit,  were  all  that  was  left  in 
the  room.  As  he  threw  himself  back  into  the  chair,  he  groaned  in  the  bit 
terness  of  his  spirit.  A  feeling  of  forlornncss  came  over  him,  which  was  not 
to  bo  relieved  by  tears.   She,  wliom  he  had  watched  over  in  her  dying  hour 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  ISfi 

and  whom  he  had  talked  to  as  she  lay  before  hun  in  death,  as  if  she  could 
hear  and  answer  him,  had  gone  from  him.  Nothing  was  left  for  the  senses 
to  fasten  fondly  on,  and  time  had  not  yet  tanght  him  to  think  of  her  only  as 
a  spirit.  But  time  and  holy  endeavors  brought  this  consolation ;  and  the 
little  of  life  that  a  wasting  disease  left  him,  Avas  passed  by  him,  when  alone, 
in  thoughtful  tranquillity  ;  and  amongst  his  friends  he  appealed  with  that 

fentle  cheerfulness,  which,  before  his  mother's  death,  had  been  a  part  of 
is  nature.* 

JSxercises. 

Narration  and  Description  may  now  be  united  in  the  history  of 

Moses  Elizabeth  of  England 

Saul  Arabella  Stewart 

Elijah  Arabella  Johnson 

Elisha  Washington 

Daniel  Jay 

Judith  Marshall 

Joshua  Franklin 

Jepthah  Montezuma. 

To  the  historical  data  which  can  be  gleaned  from  any  authentic  source, 
the  student  may  be  permitted  to  add  fictitious  circumstances  of  his  own 
invention. 

In  the  same  manner,  he  may  present  notices  of  any  other  character 
which  may  occur  in  the  course  of  his  reading  or  observation.  He  may 
also  reverse  the  process  of  amplifying,  and  present  an  abridgement  of  the 
example. 


Lxrv. 

EPISTOLARY  COREESPONDENCE,  OR  LETTER  WRITING.  1 

A  Letter  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  most  common,  as  well  as 
one  of  the  most  useful  forms  of  composition,  and  there  are  few, 
who  can  read  or  write  at  all,  who  ai'e  not  frequently  called 


*  It  is  recommended  that  the  student  be  required  to  analyze  this  beauti- 
ful specimen  of  narration  united  with  description,  by  presenting  a  list  of  the 
particulars  which  enter  into  the  narrative  and  descriptive  parts  respec 
tivelv. 

t  It  is  generally  allowed,  that  epistolary  writing,  if  not  one  of  the  highest, 
is  one  of  the  most  difficult  branches  of  composition.  An  elegant  letter  is 
much  more  rare  than  an  elegant  specimen  of  any  other  kind  of  writing.  It 
is  for  this  reason,  that  the  author  has  deviated  from  the  usual  order  prac 
Used  by  respectable  teacher?  who  give  epistolary  writing  the  first  place  in 


i84  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

upon  to  peiform  it.  Under  the  head  of  Letter  Writing,  it  19 
intended  in  this  exercise  to  include  all  the  forms  of  epistolary 
correspondence,  whether  in  the  shape  of  billets,  notes,  formal 
letters,  or  ceremonious  cards,  &c.  It  is  proper  to  premise, 
:hai,  whenever  a  letter  is  to  be  written,  regard  should  be  had 
to  the  usual  forms  of  complimentary  address,  to  the  date,  the 
superscription,  and  the  closing.  The  folding,  also,  of  the 
letter  should  not  be  disregarded.  If  it  be  true,  that  "  trifles 
form  the  principal  distinction  between  the  refined  and  the  un- 
refined," surely  those  trifles  deserve  some  sort  of  consideration. 

And,  first,  it  is  to  be  observed,  that,  whenever  a  written 
communication  is  made  by  one  individual  to  another,  the 
usages  of  society  require  that  the  reply  should  also  be  written  ; 
and  that  the  same  style  of  address  should  be  preserved  in 
both  the  communication  and  the  reply.  A  different  style,  or 
form,  seems  to  express  a  want  of  respect,  or  an  arrogance  of 
superior  knowledge,  —  faults  equally  to  be  avoided  in  the  in- 
tercourse of  polished  society. 

If  the  letter  is  written  in  the  first  person,  the  reply  should 
also  be  in  the  first  person.     Thus,  when  the  letter  begins  • 

"  Dear  Sir, 

"  I  write  to  inform  you/*  &c., 

the  answer  should  be  in  the^rs^  person  also;  thus : 

«  Dear  Sir, 

"  I  have  received  your  letter,"  «Scc.,  or  "  Your  letter 
informing  me,  &c.,  has  been  received,  and  I  hasten  to  say,*' 
&c. 

If  the  letter  is  written  in  the  third  person,  thus : 

"Mr.  Parker  has  the  honor  of  informing  the  Hon.  Mr 
Brimmer,"  &c., 

the  answer  should  also  be  in  the  third  person ;  thus : 

"  Mr.  Brimmer  has  received  the  letter  of  Mr.  Parker,"  &c. 

the  attention  of  the  student.  He  has  deemed  it  expedient  to  reserve  the 
subject  for  this  part  of  the  vohime,  and  for  the  practice  of  the  student  who 
has  been  previously  exercised  in  other  attempts.  At  this  stage  of  his  pro- 
gress,  he  may  be  nrofitably  exercised  in  the  writing  of  letters.  The  teacher 
may  now  require  him  to  write  notes,  billets,  and  letters  addressed  to  a  real 
or  fictitious  person,  announcing  some  event,  or  on  some  formal  snbject. 
The  teacher  cannot  bo  too  particular  in  his  directions  with  regard  to  fold- 
ing, sealing.  &c.,  for  early  habits  of  negligence,  or  want  of  noatness.  ar« 
with  difficulty  eradicated. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  185 

The  name  of  the  writer  should  always  be  subscribed  to  the 
letter  when  it  is  written  in  the  Jirst  person,  but  never  when 
it  is  written  in  the  third.  The  date  of  the  letter  should  also 
be  written  at  the  beginning,  when  the  letter  is  written  in  the 
first  person,  and  at  the  end,  when  it  is  written  in  the  third. 
The  address  of  the  letter  should  be  written  under  the  signa- 
ture, and  towards  the  left  side  of  the  letter,  when  it  is  written 
in  the  first  person,  but  not  when  it  is  written  in  the  third. 

A  neat  and  well-written  letter  is  a  much  moie  rare  production  than  it 
ought  to  be.  Few  directions  can  be  given  with  regard  to  the  composition 
of  a  letter;  but  it  is  intended  in  this  exercise  to  give  some  general  directions 
with  regard  to  the  mechanical  execution  of  letters,  notes,  and  billets.  And, 
first,  with  regard  to  Letters. 

A  letter  should  embrace  the  following  particulars,  namely  : 
1st.  The  date.  2d.  The  complimentary  address.  3d.  The 
body  of  the  letter.  4th.  The  style,  or  complimentary  closing. 
5  th.  The  signature  ;  and,  6th.  The  address,  with  the  title,  if 
any. 

The  date  should  be  written  near  the  right  hand  upper 
corner  of  the  sheet.  The  complimentary  address  follows,  a 
little  lower  down,  near  the  left  hand  side  of  the  sheet.  The 
l)ody  of  the  letter  should  be  commenced  very  nearly  under 
the  last  letter  of  the  complimentary  address.  The  style,  or 
complimentary  closing,  should  stand  very  nearly  under  the 
last  letter  of  the  body ;  the  signature  very  nearly  under  the 
last  letter  of  the  style ;  and  the  address  should  be  placed  a 
little  below  the  signature,  and  towards  the  left  hand  side  of 
the  sheet. 

16* 


186  AIDS    TO    ENQl.ISH    COMPOSITION. 

Example  \st. 

FORM   OF  A  LETTER. 

Date. 

Complimentary  address. 

Body  of  the  Letter. 


Sty  e,  or  Complimentary  Closing. 

Signatnra. 

AddresB,or  SuperscriptiDn. 
Title,  if  any. 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSn:iON.  J  87 

Example  2c?. 

A   LETTER,   WITH   ITS   PARTS. 


{dcae.) 
^(k^n,  G£a^  2c/,  ^^43. 

{caTiplimentary  address.) 

{body  of  the  letter.) 

^ezca/  /lo^n^,  Q/  ^dai/  vezy  amc/m.  ^u/i/i^  me 
aeJaytenou,  t^  you  «^^^  dod^e  me  di^n<:lne^  {o 
Tnen^wn  {4,  etk^d&t   /leMona^^,  o^  C'^u  no^e. 

{style ^  or  complimentary  closing.) 

^<^(iZd  ^et)^lec^i^c/u, 

{signature.) 

^^  ^.  ^.  m^dez. 

{the  address,  or  supersotption.) 

(^co9z.      7a7ne^  (^caz/i,ez. 


In  very  formal  letters,  the  address  should  precede  the 
letter  and  the  signature,  so  that  the  individual  addressed  may, 
at  first  sight,  perceive  that  the  communication  is  intended  for 
him,  before  he  has  taken  the  trouble  to  read  it  through.  In 
this  casd,  also,  the  date  should  be  written  below,  in  the  place 
of  the  address. 


188  AIDQ   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Examph  3cL 

A  FORMAL   LETTER. 


q/o 

l4e  S^n.  Q^.  ^Zi^mez, 

Q/^o^  0^ 

^^^. 

S$^, 

(2/%    /i,€wuc  dcnooM  0*   idid 

commomueawn'  aze 

uTic/ez  a^^ea^  ovuaa^ion^  ^v  you 

JT^ 

you/i  m^   ?nunt/ccenl  ^nefac^con. 

o/^at 

you 

mau  a}na'  uve 

In  wUn^,  o/tk/  €v 

z^oue  tn 

^ 

tiAu/e^  ea>een(/e^  mM^enced   o/  ma^ 

t^Tie^c^ 

twn 

M  me  atc/eni  tc/MU  of, 

&ii, 

w 

^^ouM  t^&m  ZM/iecl^uu, 

M^^'c/.     ^.   m^^. 

!SS(Meon,  (3^. 

3c/,  yS4S. 

The  folding  *  of  a  letter,  though  in  itself  a  thing  of  appa- 
rently trivial  importance,  is  still  deserving  of  attention.  The 
following  will  be  more  intelligible  than  written  directions. 


*  Official  documents  and  vory  formsd  letters  have,  sometimes,  but  two 
folds;  nnd  these  are  made  by  doubling  over  the  toj^  and  bottom  parts  of  the 
whole  sheet,  or  open  letter,  in  the  manner  in  which  papers  are  generallj 
kept  on  file.    The  whole  is  then  enclosed  in  an  envolope. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COftlPOSITION. 


189 


Example  4,(L 
This  Cut  represents  the  folding  of  a  Letter. 

No.  2.  The  first  fold,  ona  fourth  part  ol 
N :.  1    Tlie  Letter  befoje  it  is  folded.  the  first  leaf  turned  over. 


Bos(o7i,  Feb.  9, 1844. 
Dear  Sir, 

Your  letter  of  the  Wi 
has  been  duly  received,  and 
I  shall,  at  my  earliest  leisure, 
attend  to  the  business  to 
which  you  have  titer ein  called 
my  attention. 

Yours  respectfully, 

John  Smith. 
Mr.  Ricliard  Roe. 


f  o.  S.  The  second  fold ;  the  folded  part 

turned  over  so  as  to  meet  the  left 

side  of  the  sheet. 


No.  5.  The  fourth  fold 


^ 


miiLiiMiraimiiiBifflimiiMiiiiiiw 


Boston,  1 
Dear  Sir, 

Your 
has  been  did 
I  shall  at  m-y 
attend  to  tk 
vjhich  you  h\ 
my  attention 

Yours,  r 

Mr.  Richara 

No.  4.  The  third  fold. 


No.  6.  The  fifth  fold. 


H 


No.  7.  The  letter  closed.       No.  8.  The  letter  sealed.    No.  9.  The  letter  directed. 


190  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


TITLES. 

In  the  superscription  of  a  letter,  the  title  of  Honourable  la 
generally  given  by  courtesy  to  the  ViCe-President  of  the 
United  States ;  to  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  a  State ;  to 
the  Senators  and  Representatives  of  the  United  States ;  to 
the  Senators  of  the  respective  States,  and  to  the  Judges  of 
all  the  courts  ;  to  the  Mayor  of  a  city ;  to  the  Heads  of  De 
partments,  &c.  In  addressing  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  the  Governor  of  a  Commonwealth,  or  an  Ambassador 
of  the  United  States,  the  title  "  His  Excellency  "  *  is  gener- 
ally used,  t 

*  See  Antonomasia,  page  82. 

t  No  titles  are  fonnally  recognized  by  law  in  this  countiy,  except  in 
Massachusetts,  where  the  legal  title  of  the  Governor  is  '*  His  Excellency," 
and  that  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  "  His  Honor ; "  and,  therefore,  as  it 
is  stated  above,  it  is  ^  courtesy  only,  that  the  usage  has  obtained.  As  it  ia 
possible  that  this  volume  may  fall  into  the  hands  of  some  individuals  who 
are  curious  to  know  something  of  the  forms  of  address  in  the  mother  coun- 
try, the  following  directions  are  extracted  from  the  grammar  of  Mr.  Leonie, 
published  in  Edinburgh  a  few  years  ago. 

"  Directions  for  Superscriptions  and  Forms  of  Address  to  Persons  of  every 
Rank. 
[The  superscription,  or  what  is  put  on  the  outside  of  a  letter,  is  printed  ir: 
Roman  characters,  and  begins  with  To.  The  terms  of  address  used  in  be- 
ginning either  a  letter,  a  petition,  or  verbal  address,  are  printed  in  Italic 
letters,  immediately  after  the  superscription.  The  blanks  are  to  be  fiUed  up 
with  the  real  name  and  title.] 

"  To  the  Kine's  Most  Excellent  Majesty,  —  Sire,  or  May  it  please  yow 

Majesty.    Conclude  a  petition,  or  speech,  with,  —  Your  Majesty's  most 

Loyal  and  Dutiful  Subject. 
To  the  Queen's  Most  Excellent  Majesty,  —  Madam,  or,  May  it  please  your 

Majesty. 
To  his  Royal  Highness,  Frederick,  Duke  of  York,  —  May  it  please  your 

Royal  tSghness. 
In  the  same  manner  address  every  other  member  of  the  Royal  Family,  mais 

or  female. 
Nobility.    To  liis  Grace  the  Duke  of ,  My  Lord  Duke,  Your  Grace,  or, 

May  it  phase  your  Grace. 

To  the  Most  Noble  llio  Marquis  of ,  My  Lord  Marmiis,  Your  Lordship 

Totlie  Richt  lloiioruble ,  Earl  of-—,  My  Lord,  Your  Lordship. 

To  the  Right  Honorable  Lord  Vlscoant ,  My  Lord,  May  it  please  your 

Lordthip. 

To  the  Right  Honorable  Baron ,  My  Lord,  May  it  please  your  Lordship. 

The  wives  of  noblemen  liare  the  same  Titles  with  Uieir  husbands,  thus : 

To  her  Grace  the  Duchess  of ,  May  it  please  your  Grace. 

To  the  Right  Honorable  Lady  Ann  Rose,  —  My  Lady,  May  u  please  yoia 

Ladyship. 

The  titles  of  Lord  and  Ri^ht  HetutraiU  are  given  to  all  the  sons  ef  Duke* 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  19J 

The  members  of  ^  house  of  representatives,  or  of  a  board 
of  aldermen,  taken  "  .^Uectively,  should  be  addressed  as  "  The 
Honorable,"  &c. 

The  title  of  Esquire  is  also  given  by  courtesy  in  the  super- 
scription of  a  letter,  to  all  gentleir^en  to  wbom  we  wish  to 
show  respect ;  but,  when  the  title  of  Hon.  or  Honorable  is 


and  Marquises,  arx\  to  the  eldest  sons  of  Earls ;  and  the  title  of  Lady  and 
Eight  Ho7iorable  to  all  their  daughters.  The  younger  sons  of  Earls  are 
aU  Honorables  and  Esquires. 

Right  Honorable  is  due  to  Earls,  Viscounts,  and  Barons,  and  to  all  the 
members  of  Her  Majesty's  Most  *  Honorable  Privy  Council ,  to  the  Lord 
Mayors  of  London,  York,  and  Ihibliji,  and  to  the  Lord  Provost  of  Edin 
burgh,  during  tho  time  they  are  in  office ;  to  the  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons ;  to  the  Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Treasury,  Admiralty, 
Trade,  and  Plantations,  &c. 

The  House  of  Peers  ia  addressed  thus,  —  To  the  Eight  Honorable  the 
Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  in  Parliament  assembled.  My  Lords,  May  it  please  yoiu 
Lordships. 

The  House  of  Commons  is  addressed  thus,  — To  the  Honorable  the 
Knights,  Citizens,  and  Burgesses  of  the  United  Kmgdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  in  Parliament  assembled.  Gentlemen,  or,  May  it  please  yom 
Honors. 

The  sons  of  Viscounts  and  Barons  are  styled  Honorable  and  Esquire  ;  and 
their  daughters  have  their  letters  acldressed  thus,  —  to  the  Honorable 
Miss  or  Mre.  D.  B. 

The  king's  commission  confers  the  title  of  Honorable  on  any  gentleman  in 
a  place  of  honor  or  trust ;  such  as,  the  Commissioners  of  Excise,  His 
Majesty's  Customs,  Board  of  Control,  &c.,  Admirals  of  the  Navy,  Gen- 
erals, Lieutenant-Generals,  and  Colonels  in  the  Army. 

All  noblemen,  or  men  of  title,  in  the  army  and  navy,  use  their  title  by  right, 
such  as  Honorable,  before  their  title  of  rank,  such  as  Captain,  &c. ;  thus 
the  Honorable  Captain  James  James  of  the ,  Sir,  or  Your  Honor. 

Honorable  is  due,  also,  to  the  Court  of  Directors  of  the  East  India  Company, 
the  Governors  and  Deputy-Governors  of  the  Bank  of  England. 

The  title  Excellency  is  given  to  all  Ambassadors,  Plenipotentiaries,  Gov 
ernors  in  foreign  countries,  to  the  Lord-Lieutenant,  and  to  the  Lord? 
Justices  of  the  Kingdom  of  Ireland.    Address  such  thus, — 

To  his  Excellency  Sir ,  Bart.,  Her  Britannic  Majesty's  Envoy  Extraor 

dinary,  and  Plenipotentiary  to  the  Court  of  Rome, —  Your  Excellency 
May  it  please  your  Excellency. 

The  title  Right  Worshipful,  is  given  to  the  Sheriffs,  Aldermen,  and  Re 
corder  of  London ;  and  Worshipful,  to  the  Aldermen  and  Recorders  of 
other  Corporations,  and  to  Justices  of  the  Peace  in  England, —  Sir,  o\ 
Your  Worship. 

The  Clergy  are  all  styled  Reverend,  except  the  Archbishops  and  Bishops, 
who  have  something  additional ;  thus, — 

To  his  Grace  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  or.  To  the  Most  Reverend 
Father  in  God,  Charles,  Lord  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,— iJfy  Lord,  or, 
Your  Grace. 

To  the  Right  Reverend  Father  in  God,  John,  Lord  Bishop  of ,  My 

Lord,  or,  Your  Lordship. 

*  The  Privy  CounsflUcNrs,  taken  eoUectively,  are  styled  his  ftt^uesty's  Most  Honor 
ible  Privy  Ckmncil. 


192  AIDS    rO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

used,  that  of  Esquire  is  always  to  be  omitted,  on  the  principle 
that  the  greater  contains  the  less.  For  the  same  reason,  the 
title  Mr.  should  never  precede  that  of  Esquire.* 

OF  NOTES  OF  INVITATION. 

Notes  of  invitation,  except  where  a  great  degree  of  famili- 
arity is  used,  are  generally  written  in  the  third  person,  and 
on  paper  of  smaller  size,  called  billet  paper.  The  answers 
should  also  be  written  in  the  third  person,  and  the  same  forms 
of  expression  should  be  used,  as  those  employed  in  the  invi- 
tation. A  departure  from  the  form  seems  like  arrogance  of 
superior  knowledge  of  propriety  ;  but  where  an  expression  is 
manifestly  out  of  place,  or  improper,  the  writer  of  the  reply 
is  by  no  means  bound  to  sacrifice  his  own  sense  of  propriety 
to  the  carelessness  or  the  ignorance  of  the  one  who  addresses 
him. 

The  same  observations  that  were  made  with  regard  to  the 
date  of  a  letter  addressed  in  the  third  person,  apply  also  to 

♦  In  the  address  on  the  outside  of  a  letter,  note,  &c.,  when  the  residence 
of  the  person  addressed  is  unknown,  but  it  is  known  tiiat  he  is  an  inhabit- 
ant of  the  town  or  city  in  which  we  write,  the  word  "  Present "  is  frequently 
introduced  to  supply  the  place  of  the  residence. 

To  the  very  Rev.  Dr.  A.  B.,  Dean  of .  Sir. 

To  the  Rev.  Mr.  Desk,  or,  To  the  Rev.  John  Desk.  * 

The  general  address  to  clergymen  is,  <St>,  and  when  written  to,  Reverena 
Sir.  Deans  and  Archdeacons  are  usually  called  Mr.  Dean,  Mr.  Arch- 
deacon. 

Address  the  Principal  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh  thus,  —  To  the  Very 
Rev.  Dr.  B.,  Principal  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  —  Doctor;  when 
written  to,  Verv  Rev.  Doctor.  The  other  Professors  thus,  —  To  Dr.  D. 
R.,  Professor  of  Logic  in  the  University  of  E.,  —  Doctor.  If  a  Clergyuiaa 
say,  —  To  the  Rev.  Dr.  J.  M..  Professor  of,  &c.,  —  Reverend  Doctor. 

riioso  who  are  not  Drs.  are  styled  Esquire,  but  not  Mr.  too ;  thus.  —  To  J. 
P..  Esq.,  Professor  of  Humanity  in  the  University  of  Edinburgn, —  Str. 
If  ho  has  a  literary  title,  it  may  be  added.  Thus,  To  J.  P.,  Esq.,  A.  M. 
Pi-ofessnr  of,  &c. 

Mapistratos,  Biuristers  at  Law,  or  Advocates,  and  Members  of  Parliament, 
viz.  of  tb.c  House  of  Commons  (these  li\st  luive  M.  P.  after  Esq.,)  and  all 
pcntlcnicn  in  independent  circumstances,  arc  styled  Esquire,  and  their 
\vivo8  Mrs." 

•  It  «coms  to  be  unsottlod  whether  Mr.  should  be  used  after  Rcterrnd,  or  not.  In 
my  opinion  (says  Jlr.  Ix^nnle)  ItshouUl,  because  It  gives  a  clernyman  his  own  hom-r- 
«ry  title  over  and  nbovo  the  common  one.  May  we  not  use  the  Rev.  Mr.  as  well  M 
the  Hot.  Dr.  t  Uoaldes,  wc  do  not  always  recollect  whether  his  nnmc  Is  J<Tmf!<,  or 
John,  Ac.    Mr.,  In  siuh  a  case,  would  look  better  on  the  buck  of  a  li:tt.      '  '   .ig, 

IH-drawn  dash,  fliiis,  Thf  /{<v.  De.<tt.     In  sliort,  Mr.  Is  used  by  i  ■  r% 

after  Reverend,  bill  not  uniformly.    The  words  To  (he,  not  belnt:  ii'  'lO 

back  of  a  letter,  are  seldom  used ;  but.  In  addrvssirg  It  In  tha  insiac,  U:  ■  r, 

at  th«  bottom,  Ihoj  ar«  generally  u»oa. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSlTlu.N.  193 

notes  of  invitation.     The  date  should  be  at  the  bottom  of  tlia 
note,  and  at  the  left  hand.  * 

Example  5th. 

FOEM    OP   NOTES    OF   INVITATION,  WITH   THE   REPLY. 
INVITATION  POE  THE  EVENING. 


Q/'^ii/ttK/cz^  0ve*a,  me  Sm  cntt^. 


eacon 


Example  ^th. 

THE   REPLY. 


QMiizaciau  Si^enma,  me  5m  in<ii? 

^^{^a^  (2^. 

*  When  notes  or  letters  are  addressed  to  gentlemen  of  the  same  name, 
thev  should  be  addressed,  "  The  Messrs.,"  or,  "  Messrs. ;  "  if  to  two  single 
ladies,  "The  Misses,"  not  the  "Miss."  Thus,  "The  Misses  Smich,  or, 
"  The  Misses  Davies,"  not,  "  The  Miss  Smiths,"  nor  "  The  Miss  Davises." 

t  As  the  lady  is  generally  considered  the  head  of  the  tea-  table,  theru 
»eems  to  be  a  propriety  in  the  invitation  to  tea,  or  the  evening,  coming  froro 
the  lady  of  the  house  alone. 

t  Or,  Mr.  and  Mrs   Chapman  regret  that  a  prevums  en^agemimii  wUl  >/ 

17 


104  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Mxample  1th. 

IirVITATION  TO   DINNER. 


Q^/6t.    Q/^wt    teatieo^    Me     ^i^Mi^    o* 


(^alu/ic^y  Tiea^,  al  5 


Example  8th. 

THE   REPLY* 


Q/y^'^r)  ^w^cUion  ^  c/cnn&i  on  (^a^ui^iay  nexl, 
beacon  (^^ze^^, 


^iv»  them  of  the  pleasure  of  accepting  Mrs.  SruthU  polite  invitation  for 
Thursday  evening y  the  !)th  itist. 

The  adtlress  of  a  gentleman  to  a*lftdy'8  invitation  maybe :  Mr.  Chapman 
h<js  the  honor  of  acentting,  &c.,  or,  regrets  that  a  previous  engagement  tvill 
vr event  his  having  the  honor,  &c. 

*  The  latest  and  most  approved  stvle  of  folding  notcJ»,  is  to  enclose  them 
in  an  envelope,  in  tlic  manner  explained  in  reference  to  official  docu 
ments.  in  the  note  on  pace  lS8th.  The  envelopes,  ready  made,  are  fur 
nisheil  by  the  stationer.  If  not  enclosed,  they  generally  have  two  folds 
only  ;  ajid  in  directing  tJicni,  the  open  part,  or  leaves,  of  the  note  should  be 
•n  the  tfljt  side.     When  enclosed,  but  one  fold  is  necessarv 


# 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITIOnT  195 

With  regard  to  the  sealing  of  a  letter,  if  a  wafer  is  to  be 
used,  care  should  be  taken  that  it  be  not  made  too  moist,  for, 
in  that  case,  it  will  not  receive  a  good  impression  from  the 
seal ;  and,  moreover,  is  apt  to  give  the  letter  a  soiled  appear- 
ance. But  they  who  are  particular  about  these  mattei-s 
always  use  wax  in  preference  to  wafers.  * 

rOEMS  OF  CARDS. 

Under  the  head  of  epistolary  correspondence,  may  also  be  embracea 
ine  different  forms  of  ceremonious  cards,  designed  for  morning  calls,  nup 
tial  ceremonies,  &c.  As  these  are  all  supposed  to  be  wi-itten  or  dictated 
by  the  individual  who  uses  them,  no  title  conceded  liy  courtesy  alone  should 
ever  be  seen  on  them.  Even  the  prefix  of  Mr.  on  a  gentleman's  card^ 
savors  of  arrogance,  for  the  literal  meaning  of  the  prefix  is  "  Master." 
But  the  case  is  different  on  the  card  of  a  lady,  and  the  prefix  Mrs.  (al- 
though it  means  "Mistress")  is  to  be  used,  in  order  to  distinguish  her 
name  from  that  of  her  husband.  The  question  may  arise,  whether  the 
residence  should  be  inserted  on  the  card.  To  this  question  a  decided 
affirmative  reply  is  given,  although  it  is  known  to  be  at  variance  with  not 
unfrequent  usage.  The  omission  of  the  residence  seems  to  imply  the 
belief,  that  the  individual  is  a  person  of  such  distinction,  that  the  knowledge 
of  the  residence  is  a  matter  of  notoriety,  and  needs  not  to  be  mentioned. 
Now,  in  all  the  courtesies  of  life,  the  individual  speaking  of  himself,  should 
speaic  modestly  and  with  humility ;  and,  however  distinguished  he  may 
be,  he  should  be  guilty  of  no  arrogance  of  distinction.  The  insertion  ot 
the  residence,  therefore,  is  to  be  recommended  on  this  ground  alone,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  possibility  of  mistake,  arising  from  the  bearing  of  the 
same  name  by  two  different  families  or  by  two  diff'erent  individuals. 

In  the  cards  of  the  young  ladies  of  a  family,  the  family  name,  with  the 


*  Lord  Chesterfield,  having  received  a  letter  sealed  with  a  wafer,  is  said 
to  have  expressed  strong  disapprobation,  saying,  "  What  does  the  fellow 
mean  by  sending  me  his  own  spittle  /"  It  is  related,  also,  of  Lord  Nelson, 
fcliat,  in  the  very  midst  of  the  battle  of  Copenhagen,  when  the  work  of  carnage 
and  destruction  was  the  hottest  around  him,  and  he  judged  it  expedient  to 
propose  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  a  wafer  being  brought  to  him  to  seal  his 
communication  to  the  Danish  authorities,  he  rejected  it,  directing  the  wax 
and  a  taper  to  be  brought,  saying,  "  What !  sha!ll  I  send  my  own  spittle  to 
the  Crown  Prince  ?  "  In  this  latter  case,  however,  policy  might  have  beei, 
mingled  with  refinement ;  for  a  wafer  seems  to  i-.nply  haste,  and  the  sealing 
of  his  letter  with  a  wafer  would  have  implied  a  desire  for  a  speedy  cessa 
tion  of  hostilities,  which  would  have  been  construed  into  a  necessity  of  the 
same,  and  have  rendered  his  enemies  confident  of  success,  and  unwilling  to 
accede  to  the  proposal.  The  coolness  and  deliberation  implied  in  the  seal 
ing  with  wax,  concealed  from  his  enemies  the  knowledge  of  the  condition 
of  liis  fleet,  and  disposed  them  to  comply  with  his  wishes. 

There  is  a  kind  of  transparent  glazed  wafer  very  much  in  use  at  tha 
present  day  ;  but  even  this  seems  to  be  obnoxious  to  the  same  objections 
—  it  implies  haste,  which  is  inconsistent  with  the  studied  courtesies .  of 
polished  life,  and,  moreover,  involves  the  necessity  of  sending  one's  own 


196  ^IDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

prefix  of  "  A/is-s,"  is  proper  to  be  used  mtJumt  the  "  Christian  name,'"  by 
the  eldest  of  the  «;ingle  daughters.  The  Christian  nam-^s  of  the  younger 
daugliters  should  he  inserted.  To  illustrate  by  an  exa-nple,  suj)pose  a 
gentleman,  by  the  name  of  Arthur  S.  Wellington,  resides  viih  his  family, 
a  wife,  and  three  <laugliters,  Caroline  M.,  Catharine  S.,  ana  Auyusta  P  m 
TremoiU.  Street,    llis  card  should  be : 

that  of  his  ^e, 

his  eldest  daughter's, 

Q^CM<^    WeMna{on, 

his  second  daughter's, 
tus  third  daughter's, 

On  the  death,  or  marriage,  of  the  eldest  daughter,  the  second  daughter 
becomes  M««  Wellinffton,*  &c 

On  wedding  cards,  or  cards  preceding  a  wedding,  there  is  con-^iderable 


diversity  of  opinion,  wliother  the  name  of  both  the  gentleman  and  the  lady 
should  be  inserted,  or  whether  that  of  the  lady  alone  should  be  expressed. 
A  decided  opinion  is,  however,  expressed,  that  the  name  of  tlu  lady  aloru 
belongs  on  the  card.  She  is  to  be  the  future  mistress  of  the  house ;  over 
its  intenial  arrangements  she  alone  has  (or  should  have)  any  control,  and  to 
her  alone  also,  all  visits  of  ceremony  are  directed.  The  same  reasons, 
therefore,  which  exclude  the  name  of'the  husband  from  the  notes  of  invi 
tation,  seem  to  apply  with  e<iual  force  to  the  exclusion  of  the  name  of  the 
future  husband  from  tlie  wcmling  cards.  Thus,  supposing  that  Mr.  .lohn 
Singleton  and  Miss  SiinUi  Greenwood  intend  marriage,  tho  wedding  card 
•hould  be  expressed  thus : 

Miss  Sarah  Greenwood, 

At  home  on  Tuesdav  Eve'g,  at  8  o'clock. 
48  Winter  Strwt 


IIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  197 

Another  class  of  cards,*  called  business  cards,  form  a  convenient  mode 
of  advertising,  and  are  much  used  at  the  present  day.  Of  these  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  say,  that  they  should  be  short,  comprehensive,  clear,  and  dis 
tinct.    The  card  of  an  attorney  or  a  counsellor  at  law  will  read  thus : 


Reference : 
Hon.  John  Dane, 
Nam  RoyaU,  Esq 

The  card  of  a  physician  may  be  expressed  in  the  following  form . 
Jfe^^m    ^an^,  G£.    ^.,    (Q#  ©^  ^, 

Reference : 

Dr.  William  Band,  ' 
"    John  Warren. 


*  There  are  some  portions  of  this  article,  particularly  those  relating  tc 
ceremonious  observances  in  epistolary  correspondence,  which  may  be 
deemed  out  of  place  in  a  jpolume  professing  to  treat  of  grav^  composition, 
The  author's  apology  for  their  introduction  is  the  want  he  has  long  felt  o: 
something  of  the  kind  for  the  use  of  his  own  pupils.  He  confesses  that  he 
is  alone  responsible  for  all  the  directions  and  the  suggestions  in  the  intro- 
duction to  the  Exercise  ;  and,  while  he  is  conscious  that  the  attitude  of  a 
learner  would  become  him  better  than  that  of  a  teacher  in  these  points,  he 
apologizes  for  his  presumption  by  the  statement,  that  he  knows  no  source 
in  print  to  which  he  can  refer  those  who  are  desirous  of  information  upon 
these  topics.  How  he  has  thus  supplied  the  deficiency,  he  leaves  for  others 
to  judge.  To  those  who  have  any  thing  to  object  to  what  he  has  ad 
vanced,  he  respectfully  addresses  the  words  of  the  Venusian  poet : 

"  Si  qnid  novisti  rectius  istis, 

"  Candidus  imperti ;  si  non,  his  utere  mecum." 

That  the  whole  subject  is  important  in  an  enlightened  community,  needs 
no  stronger  corroboration  than  the  assertion  of  the  author  of  Waverley, 
(see  "  Ivanhoe^^''  Parker's  edition.  Vol.  1st,  p.  169,)  that  "a  man  may  with 
more  impunity  be  guilty  of  an  actual  breach  of  ^ood  breeding  or  of  good 
morals,  than  appear  ignorant  of  the  most  minute  point  of  fsishiona-ble 
etiquette." 


17* 


198  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION, 

The  card  of  a  commission  merchant  is  as  follows : 


XMunu-i^^torv 


\JiJ\keXcLant, 

[Ufptence :  J 

Samuel  Good,  1 

Fis/ce  ^  Rand,  V  Esquires. 

George  W.  Lamence,  J 

Example  9th. 

A    LETTER    OF   INTRODUCTION. 

[tH.  B.    It  will  be  noticed,  that  it  is  not  customary  to  seal  a  Letter  of  lu 
troduction.] 

J/uo  wt/c  ve  nan(/ea  ^o  you  Ou  my  Jtcend, 
^^i.  7onn  (^Tnytm,  wn'O  vmc^  yout  cc/^?i  on  vu-jt- 
ne^  connec^eci  wtm  ntd  /izo/eo^wn.  '  (^o^.  (S^mi^d 
M  one  of  ^e  ttzooI  aM^£/rj,au€<>nea  nie?nOez^  of  ^e 
(S'u/MH'  ..^az,  anci  you  taiec  no€  £iic  ^o  auicovez 
t/iat  ne  A  a^  zematnao^ ^z  nia  oBnezac  ttcnoaiz^nfA, 
aTta  me  hoa^jA  o/ nM  9min'n^za,  aa  £>z  nia  empfience 
pn  me  Ofoachzo/e^ion.  tJne  a^^n{iona  tonu>^ ycu 
9nay  /tu^cMe  io  tinow  nim,  ifoz  tny  aanst  Q/  nave  no 
cu>u^^  Inaf  you  wi^  ue  na^Ay  €o  con/ina^  ^i  neo 

own, au  Of  tonicn  &nacc^  auUe^^y  ao4nou</' 

ef/ae(/  ana  neai/iff^  z^ct/izoca^e^/  ^y 

^/fouio  teri/i€c/f4^y, 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSTION.  199 


jEJxample  10th, 

A  LETTER    OF    CONDOLENCE. 

Boston,  April  I9th,  1845. 
Dear  Friend, 

I  write  this  "under  the  utmost  oppression  of  sorrow;  the  youngest 
daughter  of  our  friend  Jones  is  dead !  Never,  surely,  was  there  a  more 
agreeable,  and  more  amiable  young  person ;  or  one  who  better  deserved 
to  have  enjoyed  a  long,  I  had  almost  said,  an  immortal  life !  She  had  all 
the  wisdom  of  age,  and  the  discretion  of  a  matron,  joined  with  youthful 
sweetness  and  virgin  modesty. 

With  what  an  engaging  fondness  did  she  behave  to  her  father !  How 
kindly  and  respectfully  receive  his  friends !  How  affectionately  treat  all 
those,  who,  in  their  respective  offices,  had  the  care  and  education  of  her ! 
She  employed  much  of  her  time  in  reading,  in  which  she  discovered  great 
Btrength  of  judgment;  she  indulged  herself  in  few  diversions,  and  those 
with  much  caution.  With  what  forbearance,  with  what  patience,  with 
what  courage,  did  she  endure  her  last  illness ! 

She  complied  with  all  the  directions  of  her  physicians ;  she  encouraged 
her  sister,  and  her  father ;  and  when  all  her  strength  of  body  was  ex- 
hausted, supported  herself  by  the  single  vigor  of  her  mind.  That,  indeed, 
continued  even  to  her  last  moments,  unbroken  by  the  pain  of  a  long  ill- 
ness, or  the  terrors  of  approaching  death ;  and  it  is  a  reflection  which 
makes  the  loss  of  her  so  much  the  more  to  be  lamented.  A  loss  infinite- 
ly severe !  more  severe  by  the  particular  conjuncture  in  which  it  hap 
pened ! 

She  was  contracted  to  a  most  worthy  youth ;  the  wedding  day  wag 
fixed,  and  we  were  all  invited.  How  sad  a  change  Irom  the  highest  joy, 
to  the  deepest  sorrow !  How  shall  I  express  the  wound  that  pierced  my 
heart,  when  I  heard  Jones  himself,  (as  grief  is  ever  finding  out  cir- 
cumstancciS  to  aggravate  its  affliction,)  ordering  the  money  he  had  de- 
signed to  lay  out  upon  clothes  and  jewels  for  her  marriage,  to  be  employed 
in  defraying  the  expenses  of  her  funeral ! 

He  is  a  man  of  great  learning  and  good  sense,  who  has  applied  himself, 
from  his  earliest  youth,  to  the  noblest  and  most  elevating  studies :  but  all 
the  maxims  of  fortitude  which  he  has  received  from  books,  or  advanced 
himself,  he  now  absolutely  rejects ;  and  every  other  virtue  of  his  heart 
gives  place  to  all  a  parent's  tenderness.  We  shall  excuse,  we  shall  even 
approve  his  sorrow,  when  we  consider  what  he  has  lost.  He  ]^s  lost  a 
daughter  who  resembled  him  in  his  manners,  as  well  as  his  person ;  and 
exactly  copied  out  all  her  father. 

If  you  shall  think  proper  to  write  to  him  upon  the  subject  of  so  reason- 
able a  grief,  let  me  remind  you  not  to  use  the  rougher  arguments  of  con- 
solation, and  such  as  seem  to  carry  a  sort  of  reproof  with  them ;  but  those 
of  kind  and  sympathizing  humanity.  Time  will  render  him  more  open 
to  the  dictates  of  reason  ;  for,  as  a  fresh  wound  shrinks  back  from  the  hand 
of  the  surgeon >  but  by  degrees  submits  to,  and  even  requires  the  means 
of  its  cure,  so  a  mind,  under  the  first  impressions  of  a  misfortune,  shuns  and 


?00  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

rejects  all  wguments  of  consolation ;  but  at  length,  if  applied  with  ten 
dnmess,  calmly  and  willingly  acquiesces  in  them  * 

Very  truly  yours, 

Geokge  C.  S.  Pabkbs 
Henry  Dix,  Esq. 

Exercises  in  Epistolary  Writing. 

A  Letter  to  a  friend  announcing  any  event,  real  or  imaginary. 
"       "  the  inhabitants  of  the  moon,  or  the  stars,  or  a  comet. 
"       "  any  character  in  history. 
"       "  any  one  in  a  foreign  country. 
"       containing  a  journal  of  occurrences. 
"  "         criticisms  Cn  works  that  have  been  read. 

"  "         opinions  on  subjects  discussed  at  any  seminary 

"  "  suggestions  caused  by  daily  studies. 

"  "         requesting  the  acceptance  of  some  present 

"        describing  a  sunrise  at  sea. 
"  «  sunset        " 

"        from  Palestine,  describing  the  country,  &c 
"  «     England,        " 

«  "    France, 

«    Italy, 

"    Greece,  u  «        « 

'        describing  the  personal  appearance  and  style  of  preaching  o{ 

some  eminent  divine. 
*  **  the  Falls  of  Niagara. 

•^  "  the  White  Mountains. 

•*  "  Lake  Erie,  &c. 

«  ♦*  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt 

•*  "  Mount  Vesuvius. 


LXV. 
REGULAR  SUBJECTS. 

ON  %  SUBJECT,  AND  THE  METHOD  OF  TREATING  IT. 

In  writing  on  a  regular  subject,  the  following  directions  are 
given  by  Mr.  Walker,  as  suggestions  for  the  different  divis 
ions,  as  well  as  for  the  systematic  train  of  reflections. 


*  Tliis  letter  is  nn  original  of  Pliny  the  Younger  to  Marcellinus,  trans 
Utcd  by  Melmotli.  The  address,  &c.  has  been  altered  to  accommodate  it 
to  the  purposes  of  this  volume. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMrOSITION.  ^v)J 

The  definition  ;  the  cause  ;  the  antiquity,  or  novelty ;  the  universality 
or  locality;  the  effects  j  namely,  the  goodness  or  badness,  or  the  advan- 
tages or  disadvantages. 

1st.  If  your  subject  require  explanation,  define  it  oi  explain  it  at 
large. 

2nd.  Show  what  is  tlie  cause  of  your  subject ;  that  is,  what  is  the  oc- 
casion of  it,  or  what  it  is  derived  from. 

3d.  Show  whether  your  subject  be  ancient  or  modem ;  that  is.  what 
was  in  ancient  times,  and  what  it  is  at  present. 

4th.  Show  whether  your  subject  relates  to  the  whole  world,  or  only 
to  a  particular  part  of  it. 

5th.  Examine  whether  your  subject  be  good  or  bad ;  show  wherein 
its  goodness  or  badness  consists,  and  what  are  the  advantages  oi  disad 
vantages  that  arise  from  it.  * 

Exarrvple. 


ON  GOVERNMENT. 

Definition.  Government  is  the  direction  and  restraint  exercised  ^rer 
the  actions  of  men  in  communities,  societies,  or  states.  It  controls  the 
administration  of  public  affairs,  according  to  the  principles  of  an  estab- 
lished constitution,  a  code  of  written  laws,  or  by  well-known  usages  ;  or 
it  may  be  administered,  as  in  some  countries,  by  the  arbitrary  edicts  of 
the  sovereign.  Government  is  the  soul  of  society :  it  is  that  order  among 
rational  creatures  which  pi'oduces  almost  all  the  benefits  they  enjoy.  A 
nation  may  be  considered  as  a  large  family ;  —  all  the  inhabitants  are,  as 
it  were,  relations ;  and  the  supreme  power,  wherever  it  is  lodged,  is  the 
common  parent  of  every  individual. 

Cause.  The  necessity  of  govemmen*  lies  in  the  nature  of  man.  In 
terest  and  selfishness,  unrestrained  by  salutary  kaws  and  restrictions, 
would  be  the  controlling  principle  of  every  man's  actions,  uninfluenced 
by  a  proper  regard  for  the  rights  of  others.  It  is  necessaiy,  therefore,  vo 
have  some  restrain^  laid  upon  every  man  —  some  power  which  shall 
control  him,  and  impel  him  to  what  is  right,  and  deter  him  from  what  is 
wrong,  and  this  power  is  government.  To  this  restraint  3"''ery  one  musJ 
subnf-it ;  and  if  in  such  submission  any  one  finds  it  necessary  to  give  up 


These  directions  are  thus  versified  by  Mr.  Walker: 
If  first  your  subject  definition  need. 
Define  your  subject  first,  and  then  proceed ; 
Next,  if  you  can,  find  out  your  subject's  cause, 
And  show  from  whence  its  origin  it  draws  : 
Ancient  or  modern  may  your  subject  be, 
Pursue  it,  therefore,-  to  antiquity ; 
Your  subject  may  to  distant  nations  roam. 
Or  else  relate  to  objects  nearer  home  : 
The  subject  which  you  treat  is  good,  or  ill 
Or  else  a  mixtiire  of  each  principle : 
And  ere  your  subject  a  conclusion  know, 
The  advantage  or  the  disadvantage  show. 


202  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

a  jiortion  of  the  rights  with  which  he  fancies  that  God  and  nature  en 
dowed  hiui,  he  will  be  consoled  by  the  reflection  tlmt  all  have  to  make 
the  sacrifice,  and  that  the  concession  is  made  for  the  protection  of  his  prop- 
erty and  his  life,  for  without  government  neither  would  be  safe. 

A  tiliquity.  Accordingly,  we  find,  so  deeply  seated  is  the  necessity  for 
government,  that  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world  a  kind  of  government 
was  existing  among  all  tribes  and  nations ;  and  so  remarkable  is  this 
fact,  that  almost  all  that  history  records  of  the  earliest  people  is  the  history 
of  these  kings. 

llnlim-saUty.  In  every  part  of  the  world,  also,  at  the  present  day,  where 
numau  creatures  are  to  be  seen,  there  also  some  kind  of  government  is 
found  among  them.  Even  the  rudest  among  the  savage  nations  have 
their  kings  and  chiefs,  whose  word  is  law,  and  whose  power  is  seldom 
"lisputcd. 

Locality.  But  government,  in  its  most  perfect  form,  is  generally  found 
imong  the  most  civilized  and  enlightened  people.  Almost  all  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  government  now  existing,  or  that  ever  did  exist,  may  be 
rc'luced  to  three,  namely,  Monarchy,  Aristocracy,  and  Democracy.  Un- 
der one  of  these  forms  every  nation  now  known  to  exist  is  regulated 
and  controlled.  The  painted  Indian,  whose  life  and  death  are  at  tlie 
mercy  of  his  sachem,  the  naked  African,  who  looks  in  terror  at  his  king, 
and  the  wild  Arab,  whose  chief  is  the  sovereign  arbiter  in  the  division 
of  the  plunder  obtained  by  the  horde,  all  are  in  fact  the  subjects  of  a 
monarcli.  Rome,  imder  the  decemvirs,  and  Venice  and  Genoa  under 
their  nobles,  presented  the  spectacle  of  an  Aristocracy;  wiiile  Athens, 
luxurious  Athens,  invested  the  chief  power  in  an  assembly  of  the  people, 
and  presented  to  the  world  a  splendid  example  of  a  Democracy.  Each 
of  these  different  forms  is  attended  by  its  own  peculiar  advantages 
and  disadvantages  which  the  unity  of  our  subject  does  not  permit  us 
no\y  to  discuss.  But  the  advantages  of  some  form  of  government  re- 
mains yet  to  be  presented. 

Advantages.  Order  is  said  to  be  the  first  law  of  heaven.  But  among 
men  it  is  essentially  necessary  for  their  very  existence.  Man,  uncon- 
trolled and  unrestrained,  would  ever  be  invading  his  brother's  riglits 
Nothing  would  be  safe.  Might  would  be  right,  and  Ihe  strongest  might 
revel  in  the  possession  of  that  which  the  weiUcer  had  no  power  to  keep 
from  him.  Laws  emanate  from  government.  Without  government 
there  could  be  no  laws.  It  is  the  laws  which  protect  every  nian  in  the 
enjoyment  of  his  life,  his  libertv,  and  his  jwssessions.  Without  laws, 
property  would  not  be  respected ;  the  weak  would  be  the  slave  of  the 
strong,  and  the  strong  could  enjoy  their  ill-gotton  possessions  only  so 
long  as  they  could  maintain  their  ascendancy.  It  is  government,  there- 
fore, that  secures  fo  cvt^ry  one  the  enjoymeiit  of  what  he  possesses,  and 
restrains  tlio  strong  from 'encroaching  on"  the  rights  of  the  weak. 

Disadvantages.  Every  form  of  government  is  liable  to  abuse.  They 
who  are  in  power  arc  engaged  in  a  constant  struggle  to  maintain  tha't 
I)Ower,  while  the  ambitious  and  the  a.spiring  are  eagerlv  watchini:  their 
opportunity  to  supplant  tliem.  This  gives  rise  "to  parties  and  cabals,  to 
plots  and  intrigues,  to  treachery,  to  treason  and  rebellion,  to  civil  wars 
rnd  family  feuds,  in  which  the  'innocent  often  share  the  i)unishnicnt  pre- 
I<vred  for  the  guilty.  But  these  evils  arc  light  in  comparison  with  those 
which  spring  from  anarchy,  or  want  of  government.    It  becomes  evcnr 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION, 


2O0 


one,  therefore,  to  lend  his  aid  in  support  of  the  government  under  which 
it  has  pleased  providence  to  jilace  him,  until  that  government  shows  by 
Its  actions  that  the  good  of  the  people  for  whom  it  was  instituted  is  not 
its  aim,  and  thereby  renders  rebellion  a  palliated  evil,  if  not  a  virtue. 


Exercises. 

Time. 

On  Justice.                      On  J05'. 

Temperance. 

The  Mind. 

Gaming. 

Modesty. 

The  corporeal  faculties 

.  Industry. 

Sculpture. 

Forgiveness. 

Luxury. 

Clemency. 

Affection  filial. 

Patience. 

Religion. 

Affection  parental,  &c. 

Pride. 

Morning. 

Cruelty. 

Perseverance. 

Evening. 

Faith. 

Conscience. 

Day. 

Happiness. 

Compassion. 

Night. 

Flattery. 

Equity. 

Ambition. 

Indolence. 

Generosity. 
Melancholy. 

Revenge. 

Justice. 

Honor. 

Magnanimity. 

Humanity. 

Virtue. 

Politeness. 

Ingratitude. 

Education. 

Prudence. 

Frugality. 

Truth. 

Courage. 

Patriotism. 

The  World. 

Fortitude. 

Prodigality. 

Anger. 

Disinterestedness. 

Poverty. 

Knowledge. 

Fidelity. 

LXVI. 

THEMES. 

Themes  are  subjects,  or  topics,  on  which  a  person  writes 
or  speaks. 

A  theme,  as  defined  by  Mr.  Walker,  is  the  proving  of 
some  truth. 

Themes  are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  simple  and  thw 
complex. 

Simple  themes  comprehend  such  as  may  be  expressed  by 
one  term  or  more,  without  conveying  either  an  affirmation  or 
a  negation.  Such  as  Logic,  Education,  Habit,  The  Fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  The  Institution  of  Chivalry.  * 


*  Such,  also,  are  the  subjects  of  the  last  Exercises  under  the  head  of 
Regular  Subjects. 


204  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Ccinplex  themes  comprehend  such  propositions  as  adrrw.  i/' 
proof  or  illustration  ;  expressing  a  judgment  which  of  ccurst 
may  be  denied  without  invoking  any  positive  contradiction  in 
the  meaning  of  the  terras.  The  following  are  examples  . 
"  Logic  is  a  useful  study."  "  Youth  is  the  season  of  im- 
provement." "Wisdom  is  better  than  riches."  "A  public 
is  preferable  to  a  private  education." 

In  the  last  set  of  exercises  the  course  was  laid  down  foi  the  manage 
ment  of "  a  regular  subject,"  which  is  prescribed  by  Mr.  Walker  in  his 
"  Teacher's  Assistant."  What  he  calls  "  regular  subjects  "  are  designed 
for  simple  tliemes.  The  course  prescribed  by  Mr.  Jardine,  in  his  Out- 
lines of  a  Pliilosophical  Education,  is  less  mechanical,  and  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred, because  the  mind  of  the  student  is  less  fettered  by  "  leading 
strings,"  and  left  more  to  its  own  resources.  The  following  are  his  pre- 
liminary remarks : 

"  To  give  an  illustration  of  a  simple  theme  I  shall  suppose  the  subject 
to  be  Logic,  and  sliall  shortly  apply  the  scholastic  rules  to  the  structure 
of  the  essay  wliich  sliould  be  composed  upon  it." 

"  The  first  rule  directs  the  student  to  begin  by  fixing  exactly  the  mean- 
ing of  the  term,  which  is  the  subject  of  the  theme,  removing  every  thing 
that  is  doubtful  or  equivocal  in  its  signification ;  and,  when  difliiculties 
of  that  kind  occur,  the  true  import  of  the  word  must  be  determined  by 
the  canons  of  etymology,  or  by  the  practice  of  the  best  ^vriters." 

"  By  the  second  rule,  which  is  the  principle  one,  he  is  required  to  ex- 
plain the  essential  and  accidental  quaUties  of  the  subject,  here  supposed 
to  be  lo(jic ;  and  to  enumerate  them,  according  to  their  order  and  impor- 
tance, and  with  a  reference  to  the  end  which  is  contemplated  by  the 
logician.  That  end  is  the  establishment  of  truth  or  the  refutation  of 
enor,^nd  it  is  accomplished  by  the  appli(;ation  of  those  rules  of  right 
reasorimg,  in  which  the  art  of  lofjic  may  be  said  to  consist.  In  these 
rules  are  included  definition,  division,  classification,  as  well  as  those 
general  directions  relative  to  propositions  which  are  derived  from  the 
ancient  dialectics.  But  it  is  unnecessary  here  to  enlarge ;  for  the  most 
important  of  the  rules,  for  both  kinds  of  themes,  are  the  same,  in  so  far, 
at  lea.><t,  as  the  object  of  both  is  the  attainment  of  clear  notions,  lucid  ar 
rangemcnt,  and  perspicuous  expression." 

"  The  special  rules  which  relate  to  the  management  of  complex  themes, 
may  be  shortly  enumerated.  That  no  propositions,  advanced  as  the 
ground  of  inference  and  deduction  .should  be  admitted,  but  upon  the  best 
and  most  solid  evidence,  arising  from  sense,  from  consciousness,  or  experi- 
ence, or  from  undeniable  tiiiths,  such  as  axioms  and  intuitive  propositions ; 
or  lastlv,  uj)on  testimony,  analogy,  facts  already  proved,  the  undeviating 
laws  of*  nature,  &c.  —  that  the  meaning  of  the  subject,  and  predicates  of 
the  radical  proposition  be  accurately  fixed  —  that  the  extent  of  the  affirma 
lion  or  negation  be  cxactlv  ascertained,  so  that  the  proposition  may  be 
stated  in  the  most  intelligible  maimer,  and  the  logical  rules  of  division  be 
applied  —  that  the  attention  be  next  directed  to  the  kind  of  evidence  by 
which  the  proposition  is  established  —  and  the  arguments  to  bo  intro 
duced  in  such  oitler,  that  those  which  precede  shall  throw  light  on  tliosc 
Uiat  follow,  and  form  a  connected  chain  of  comjiarisons,  by  which  ulti 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITIOiT.  205 

mately  the  agreement  or  disagreement,  ex])ressed  in  the  proposition, 
shall  be  made  manifest;  and  finally  that  all  objections  a^ainct  the  propo- 
sition be  candidly  and  explicitly  answered.  The  proof,  when  it  is  long, 
rray  be  concluded  with  a  recapitulation,  containing  the  united  strength 
of  all  the  arguments  which  have  been  brought  to  confirm  it." 

"  It  is  impossible  to  prescribe  rules  which  shall  exactly  accord  with  the 
variety  of  subjects  which  may  come  under  this  order  of  themes,  and,  there- 
fore, much  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  and  experience  of  the  teacher. 
It  is  not  eveiy  theme  that  requires  the  application  of  all  the  rules.  The 
first  rule  may  be  sometimes  necessary' ;  the  second  is  indispensable  on  all 
subjects ;  the  other  rules  are  only  occasionally  required  ;  —  a  rigid  adhe- 
rence to  these  rules  might  render  composition  stiff  and  formal ;  but  that 
would,  in  a  great  measure,  be  prevented,  by  frequent  use  and  judicious 
application." 

"  Though,  in  the  management  of  complex  themes,  the  rules  of  demon 
stration  cannot  be  always  followed,  yet  the  cleaniess,  certainty,  and  pro- 
gress of  that  kind  of  reasoning,  ought  to  be  the  standard,  as  the  best  and 
most  effectual  mode  of  procuring  the  assent  of  the  mind.  Let  the  young 
composer  imitate  the  geometrician,  in  first  attempting  to  establish  clearly 
the  datum  on  which  the  deduction  rests,  and  then  proceed,  with  grad- 
ual and  increasing  strength,  to  the  conclusion."  ^ 


*  It  may,  perhaps,  be  objected  that  the  course  here  prescribed  by  Mr. 
Jardine  is  too  difficult  for  the  young  student.    If  perfect  or  finished  *corn- 

fiositions  were  required,  there  might  be  good  grounds  for  such  an  opinion. 
n  all  cases,  perfect  specimens  must  be  preceded  by  many  unsuccess- 
■  ful  efforts.  An  eminent  writer  has  candidly  acknowledged  that  he  would 
be  ashamed  to  disclose  the  many  unsuccessful  attempts  he  had  made,  be- 
fore he  could  pi'oduce  any  ;hing  worthy  of  public  attention.  Imperfect, 
then,  as  the  first  essays  of  the  student  maybe,  they  constitute  the  natural 
and  indispensable  steps  which  lead  to  higher  degrees  of  perfection. 

The  following  extract  from  one  of  Mrs.  Sherwood's  "  Social  Tales  "is  so 
pertinent  to  the  subject,  that  it  is  thought  that  it  will  be  useful  to  the  stu- 
dent to  present  it  in  this  place.  The  tale  from  which  it  is  extracted  is 
entitled  "  Hoc.  Age:' 

"  It  was  the  custom  of  my  father,  when  I  was  a  girl,  to  require  of  me 
every  Saturday,  a  few  pages  written  upon  a  given  subject.  Well  do  I  re- 
member the  hours  which  I  sometimes  used  to  spend  on  these  unfortunate 
Saturday  mornings,  in  endeavoring  to  elicit  sparks  of  genius  from  the 
cold  iron  of  my  brain ;  and  how  pleased  I  was  wont  to  be,  when  any  thing 
like  a  ])right  idea  presented  itself  to  my  imagination  :  such  were  welcome 
to  me  as  angel's  visits,  which  are  said  to  be  few  and  far  between. 

"  Much  of  my  success,  however,  I  found,  depended  upon  the  subject 
which  was  given  me.  When  these  subjects  were  fruitfnl  and  congenial  to 
my  feelings,  the  task  was  comparatively  easy ;  but  when  they  were  new 
and  strange  to  me,  my  labor  was  greatly  increased,  and  so  far  from  being 
able  to  put  my  ideas  into  any  new  form,  I  seemed  to  lose  the  power  of 
expressing  them,  even  in  the  niost  ordinary  way. 

"  Judge,  then,  what  must  have  been  my  despair,  when  on  a  certain  Sat- 
urday, having  stolen  up  into  my  father's  study,  with  that  sort  of  quiet 
pace' which  children  use  when  they  are  going  about  any  thing  they  do  not 
much  relish,  (for  the  motion  of  the  foot  is  a  never-varying  index  in  a  simple 
mind,  of  the  feelings  of  the  heart.)  I  stood  behind  his  chair  as  he  sat  writ 
ing,  and  said,  '  Papa,  please  for  the  subject  of  my  theme,  to  day?  '  ■ 

*  Hoc  age,'  he  replied,  still  writing  on. 

18 


20C  AIDS    TO    ENvLISH    COMPOSITION. 

"  Of  one  thing,"  continues  Mr.  Jardine,  "  the  youngest  student  must  t>e 
made  sensible,  I'rora  the  evidence  of  his  own  consciousness,  that  lie  cannot 
exf)€ct  to  compose  even  the  simplest  t/ienie  uxUhout  directing  and  continuing  hit 
power  of  thinkin'f  upon  it." 

"  Instructions  cannot  be  too  plain  nor  too  minute,  when  directed  to 
young  persons  entering  upon  a  new  and  dithcult  course  of  study.  The 
expciicncc  of  the  perplexities  which  assail  the  juvenile  mind,  in  its  tirst 
er.deavors  to  discover  materials  and  to  find  expressions,  has  induced  me 
tc  lay  aside  the  authority  of  the  teacher,  and  to  place  myself  as  the  com- 
panion or  friend  of  the  student,  in  those  moments  when  his  difficulties  are 
most  formidable  " 

"  I  suppose,  then, '  Emulation '  chosen  as  the  subject  of  a  simple  theme, 
jrhich  the  student  is  required  to  explain  and  illustrate,  from  lectures,  books 


" '  What,  papa  ? '  I  said. 

•' '  Hoc  age,  child,'  he  answered ;  '  Hoc  age —  go  and  make  the  best  of  it, 
but  do  n't  disturb  me.' 

" '  Hoc  age,'  I  repeated,  as  I  went  down  stairs.  '  Hoc  age  —  it  is  Latin  ; 
I  know  it  is  Latin.  Hoc  is  thi.%.,  and  it  is  neuter,  and  the  word  thing  is 
understood ;  and  age  is  do;  I  know  enough  of  Latin  for  this ;  therefore, 
Hoc  age  means.  Do  this  thing.' 

"  So  I  mended  a  pen,  and  took  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  wrote  '  Hoc  age  ' 
in  a  fair  hand  at  the  top  of  the  paper ;  and  then  I  added  the  translation ; 
and  then  wrote  mv  own  name  in  one  comer,  and  the  date  at  another;  and 
then  looked  out  of  the  window,  and  up  to  the  ceiling,  and  wrote  again,  and 
actually  made  out  a  sentence  to  this  effect :  '  It  is  our  duty,  under  every 
circumstance  of  life,  to  attend  to  this  admonition ; '  and  there  I  stoppea, 
for  the  question  suggested  itself,  to  wit,  what  admonition  ?  Further,  there 
fore,  I  could  not  get,  and  when  n'ly  father  called  me  to  diimer,  I  had  not  ad 
vanced  an  inch  beyond  the  full  round  stop  after  the  word  aihnonition. 

"  My  father  was  one  of  the  kindest  and  gentlest  of  parents,  and  when  I 
presented  my  vacant  sheet  to  him,  he  smiled,  and  said,  '  'T  is  as  much  as  I 
expected ;  but  I  am  perfectly  satisfied,  nevertheless.  If  you  have  spent 
your  morning  in  considering  the  nature  of  the  injunction  meant  to  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  words  '  Hoc  age,'  you  have  not  lost  your  time."  My  father 
then  entered  into  an  explanation  of  the  subject,  and  pointed  out  to  me  that 
these  two  words  were  equivalent  to  the  Scripture  injunction,  '  Whatso- 
ever thine  hand  findeth  to  do,  do  it  with  thy  might.'  And  then  he  showed 
me  that  the  world  abounded  with  persons  who  never  seemed  to  give  their 
full  and  uncUvided  attention  to  any  thing  which  they  had  to  clo,  and  in 
consequence,  when  suddenly  called  upon  to  act  or  speak  with  promptitude, 
were  never  ready  and  never  had  their  words  or  their  actions  at  command. 
•Hence,'  continued  he, 'on  smaller  occasions,  thoy  are  for  ever  wasting 
their  time,  and  on  more  important  ones  losing  a«.lvantages  and  opportunities 
never  to  bo  recovemd.'  My  father  added  much  more  to  me  on  this  subject  ; 
but  as  I  shall  hope,  m  what  follows,  to  elucidate  what  he  said  by  a  very 
appropriate  example,  I  sliall  cite  no  more  of  his  valuable  discourse,  with 
the  exception  of  one  rcuiark  only,  which  was  most  important ;  it  was  it 
this  eficct:  that  the  salvation  of  tile  soul  is  the  thing  to  be  done  in  the  first 
instance;  the  '  Hoc  &^e'  to  winch  every  human  creature  should  principally 
attend  —  all  other  concerns  being  made  su'jordinate  to  this  one  object,  and 
all  other  efforts  or  exertions  being  in  the  end  wholly  ineflScient  in  pVoducin;^ 
the  happiness  of  any  individual,  when  this  one  thing  needful  is  neglected." 
The  whole  of  the  tale,  of  which  the  above  extract  is  merely  the  intrtv 
duction,  may  well  be  recommended  to  the  perusal  of  both  teachers  :\ui\ 
stiidenta. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  207 

ttud  observations,  in  such  a  way  as  to  communicate  a  distinct  account  of 
emulation  to  all  who  shall  read  his  essay.  Wliere  are  the  materials  to  be 
found  1  His  iirst  recourse  would  probably  be  to  authors  who  have  treated 
of  emulation,  from  whom  he  might  take  what  serves  his  purpose.  But  ho 
is  instructed  that  there  is  a  nearer  and  much  more  fertile  source,  which 
will  furnish  him  with  materials,  providing  he  seek  for  them  in  the  proper 
way.  And  what  is  that  source  ?  His  own  mind,  working  upon  the  mate- 
rials which  he  already  possesses.  Let  him  put  the  question  to  himself, 
What  is  emulation  ?  Here  let  him  recollect  the  early  scenes  in  which  this 
feeling  was  first  excited.  On  the  verge  of  childliood,  he  must  remember 
the  language  used  in  amusements, '  I  can  do  this,  and  you' cannot,' '  I  shall 
be  at  that  mark  before  you.'  He  may  have,  perhaps,  read  the  beautiful 
description  of  Gray,  in  the  distant  prospect  of  Eton  College : 

"Who,  foremost,  now  delights  to  cleave 
With  pliant  arms,  the  glassy  wave,  &c. 

Or  the  description  of  the  Trojan  games,  in  the  sixth  book  of  the 
-^neid.  He  may  recollect  that,  when  at  school,  he  contended  for  the  first 
place  in  his  class,  or  may  be  now  contending  for  the  first  prize  at  college. 
Upon  the  recollection  of  these  scenes,  and  from  associated  feelings  which 
exist  in  his  mind,  he  is  in  some  sort  prepared  to  answer  the  question, 
What  is  '  emulation  ? '  A  desire  and  endeavor  to  excel  others,  —  to  be  the 
first  in  any  competition." 

"  From  whence  proceeds,  or  what  excites  this  desire  and  endeavor  1 
From  obtaining  an  object  first,  which  other  competitors  wish  to  possess. 
Is  it  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  object  of  competition  1  No ;  —  it  may  be  a 
sprig  of  laurel,  —  a  palm-branch,  —  a  fox's  tail,  —  a  medal  of  little  value, 
—  a  book,  a  seat  of  preferment  or  of  honor.  From  what,  then,  does  the 
object  receive  its  value  1  It  is  the  circumstance  of  obtaining  it  before 
other  competitors.  And  what  is  it  that  gives  such  value  to  the  being  first 
in  the  competition  ?  It  is  the  presence  of  many  spectators  and  admirers 
It  is  their  reflected  praise,  which  animates  the  competitors,  —  which  makes 
the  breast  of  the  student  palpitate  when  he  receives  tlie  prize.  Let  the 
competition  take  place  in  a  desert,  where  there  are  no  spectators,  the  charm 
is  dissolved,  and  the  competitors  walk  over  the  course  without  pleasure  or 
expectation." 

"  Again,  what  are  the  effects  of  emulation "?  When  this  principle  oper- 
ates with  full  effect,  and  under  control  of  virtue  and  honor,  it  produces 
vigorous  conflict,  persevering  exertion,  contempt  of  difficulties  and  dan- 
gers, increasing  hopes,  eager  expectations,  and,  in  the  moments  of  success, 
exquisite  delight.  The  student  may  have  a  clearer  view  of  this  generous 
and  energetic  feeling,  by  turning  his  attention  to  the  histories  of  great 
characters  and  great  events,  and  distinguishing  emulation  from  the  effects 
of  other  feelings  not  unfrequently  associated  with  it.  He  will  thus  be 
enabled  to  draw  a  line  of  distinction  betAveen  it  and  its  collaterals,  ambi- 
tion and  fame.  These  fix  upon  tlae  possession  of  their  objects  without  any 
view  of  competition,  or  of  the  means  by  which  they  may  be  obtained, 
whereas  the  pleasures  of  emulation  spring  from  the  love  of  excellence  and 
superiority." 

"  The  experience  of  competitions,  in  which  (he  student  has  been  en- 
gaged, or  of  those  which  he  has  observed,  will  suggest  to  him,  that  emula 
tion  in  its  purest  form  can  only  take  place  where  the  prize  is  won  by  the 
personal  exertions  of  the  individual.     When  any  undue  means  are  usee? 


208  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COAH'O-SITIoX. 

to  obtain  it,  or  any  obstacle  indirectly  thrown  in  the  way  of  a  rival  com 
petitor,  the  generous  flame  of  emulation  is  extinguished,  and  a  nieau 
degrading  spirit  is  substituted  in  its  place.  One  would  tiiink  that  the 
mortification  which  the  student  must  suffer,  when  he  receives  a  prize 
which  he  is  conscious  he  did  not  deserve,  should  dispose  hun  to  reject  it 
as  altogether  unworthy  of  his  acceptance.  The  student  cannot  have  for 
gotten  the  manner  in  which  the  friendly  stratagem  of  Nisus,  in  favor  ot 
Euryalus,  was  received  by  the  other  competitors  at  the  celebration  of  the 
Trojan  games." 

"An  enlargoibviow  should  be  taken  of  the  field  of  competition,  Tha< 
field  may  be  cuUecl  up  by  the  imagination.  The  person  in  whom  the  trut 
spark  of  emulation  is  kindled,  may  imagine  himself  placed  upon  the  sarat 
arena  with  the  competitors  of  other  centuries  and  other  ages.  Virgil  en 
deavored  to  rival  the  fame  of  Homer,  and  Cicero  that  of  Demosthenes 
When  Cajsar  passed  the  statue  of  Alexander,  he  is  said  to  have  burst  into 
tears,  because  the  Macedonian  had  surpassed  him  in  military  achieve 
ments.  "When  ambition  and  emulation  are  conjoined  in  the  same  character 
occupied  in  similar  exploits,  it  requires  some  discrimination  to  determine 
what  belongs  to  each." 

This  sketch,  of  course,  is  not  intended  as  a  specimen  of  a  simple  theme 
on  emulation,  but  merely  as  a  general  outline  of  the  materials,  with  the 
view  of  pointing  out  to  the  student  the  course  he  should  take  to  find  them. 
He  has  only  to  embrace  the  subject  of  the  theme  closely,  —  to  apply 
to  his  o^vn  mind  for  light  and  knowledge,  —  to  press  himself  with  inter 
rogatories  relative  to  his  demands,  —  to  follow  the  natural  associations 
of  things,  and  he  will  soon  find  materials  enough,  and  arrive  at  much 
information  which  he  could  not  otherwise  have  conceived  to  be  within  his 
reach.  The  concluding  step  is  to  select  from  these  materials,  and  to 
an-ange  them  according  to  the  particular  end  he  has  in  view.  If  this  part 
of  his  work  be  rightly  performed,  he  will  not  find  much  diflSculty  in 
suitably  expressing  what  he  clearly  and  distinctly  knows." 

[A  list  of  subjects  for  Exercises  will  be  found  in  the  last  article,  under  the 
head  of  Regular  Subjects.] 

If  the  course  thus  laid  down  by  Mr.  Jardine  for  the  management  of 
tlicmes,  be  found  too  loose  or  too  difficult,  the  student  may  follow  the 
rriore  mechanical  one  of  Mr.  Walker.  His  course  for  regular  subjects  or 
simple  themes  has  already  been  given.  The  following  is  his  course,  with 
regard  to  themes  in  general ;  * 

After  the  Theme  or  Truth  is  laid  down,  the  Proof  consista 
of  the  following  parts  : 

Ist.  The  Proposition  or  Narrative;  where  we  show  the 
meaning;  of  the  Theme,  by  amplifying,  paraphrasing,  or 
explaining  it  more  at  large. 


*  It  will  be  noticed  that  Mr.  Walker  designates  simple  tJtemes  as  RepUm 
Subjects;  while  lie  embrncos,  under  the  term  of  Theme,  those  only  which  \n 
eenenil  are  called  com^ilex  themes.  This  accords  with  his  definition  of  a 
tliomo.  which  he  says  is  the  "proving  of  some  truth." 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  209 

2d.  The  Reason ;  where  we  prove  the  truth  of  the  Theme 
by  some  reason  or  argument. 

3d.  The  Confirmation ;  where  we  show  the  unreasonable- 
ness of  the  contrary  opinion ;  or,  if  we  cannot  do  that,  we  try- 
to  bring  some  other  reason  in  support  of  the  former. 

4th.  The  Simile ;  where  we  bring  in  something  in  nature 
or  art,  similar  to  what  is  affirmed  in  our  Theme,  for  illustrating 
♦the  truth  of  it. 

5  th.  The  Example ;  where  we  bring  instances  from  History 
to  corroborate  the  truth  of  our  Theme. 

6th.  The  testimony  or  Quotation ;  where  we  bring  in  pro- 
verbial sentences  or  passages  from  good  authors,  which  show 
that  others  think  as  we  do. 

7th.  The  Conclusion;  when  we  sum  up  the  whole  and 
show  the  practical  use  of  the  Theme,  by  concluding  with  some 
pertinent  observations.  * 

Example, 

TOO  MUCH  FAMILIARITY  GENERALLY  BREEDS  CONTEMPT. 

Proposition.  There  is  no  observation  more  generally  true 
than  that  our  esteem  of  a  person  seldom  rises  in  proportion  to 
our  intimacy  with  him. 

Reason.  Such  is  the  general  disguise  men  wear,  that  their 
good  qualities  commonly  appear  at  first,  and  their  bad  ones  are 
discovered  by  degrees ;  and  this  gradual  discovery  of  their 

*  The  rules  are  thus  versified  by  Mr.  Walker 

TJie  Propositio7i^  the  Reaso7t,  the  Confirmation^  tne  Simile,  tV  BarampU, 
he  Testimony^  ayid  the  Conclusion. 

The  Theme  at  large  the  Proposition  gives, 
And  the  same  thought  in  other  words  conceives 
The  Reason  shows  the  Proposition  true, 
By  bringing  arguments  and  proofs  to  view; 
The  Confirmation  proves  th'  opinion  right, 
By  showing  how  absurd  's  the  opposite. 
If  that 's  not  to  be  done,  it  tries  to  explore 
Some  proof  in  aid  of  what  was  given  before. 
The  Simile  an  apt  resemblance  bi'ings, 
WHiich  shows  the  theme  is  true  in  other  things ; 
The  Example  instances  from  History  draws, 
That  by  mankind's  experience  prove  our  cause: 
The  Testimony  to  the  wise  appeals, 
And  by  their  suff"rage  our  opinion  seals. 
Some  useful  observations  come  at  last, 
As  a  conclusion  drawn  from  what  is  past- 
]8* 


210  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

failings  and  weaknesses,  must  necessarily  lessen  our  opinion 
of  them. 

Conjirmation.  It  is  the  nature  of  man  to  have  a  high 
opinion  of  any  excellence  he  is  not  fully  acquainted  with :  he 
is  prone  to  imagine  it  much  greater  than  it  really  is ;  and 
therefore  when  it  becomes  thoroughly  known,  the  expectation 
is  at  an  end,  and  the  good  qualities  which  we  at  first  admired, 
haviiig  no  longer  the  recommendation  of  novelty,  become  nob 
only  less  striking,  but  often  produce  indifference  and  contempt. 

Simile.  As  the  frogs  in  the  fable  were  at  first  terrified  by 
the  noise  of  the  falling  of  the  log  which  Jupiter  threw  down 
into  the  lake  for  their  king,  but  by  degrees  became  so  familiar 
with  their  wooden  monarch  as  to  despise  it ;  so  kings  have 
often  found  by  mixing  too  familiarly  with  their  subjects,  and 
masters  by  being  too  free  with  their  servants,  that  they  have 
lost  their  importance  in  proportion  to  their  condescension. 

JExample.  James  the  First,  King  of  England,  was  a  man 
of  considerable  learning,  and  had  as  few  bad  qualities  Jis  the 
generaHty  of  his  subjects;  but,  by  jesting  with  his  attendants, 
and  descending  to  childish  familiarity  with  them,  scarcely  any 
>King  of  England  was  held  in  greater  contempt. 

Testimony.  A  celebrated  teacher  has  said  that  young  peo- 
ple cannot  be  too  much  on  their  guard  against  falling  into  to<j 
gi'eat  familiarity  with  tlieir  companions ;  for  they  are  sure  to 
lose  the  good  opinion  of  those  with  whom  they  are  familiar. 

Conclusion.  It  may,  therefore,  be  laid  down,  as  confirmed 
by  reason  and  experience,  that  nothing  requires  greater  cau- 
tion in  our  conduct,  than  our  behaviour  to  those  with  whom 
we  are  most  intimate. 

Exercises. 

The  necessity  of  Exercise. 

The  proper  use  of  Amusements. 

On  LauilaMe  Exertion. 

The  importance  of  a  {rood  chaiticter. 

The  Folly  of  Dissipation. 

Want  of  Piety  arises  from  the  want  of  sensibility. 

The  importanco  of  Ilospitjvlity  and  the  civilities  of  common  lif« 

lU'TiLMon  consistent  with  tnie  politeness. 

On  the  plciisures  of  Conversation. 

Tie  dignity  of  virtue  amid  corrupt  examples. 

The  duties  and  pleasures  of  Keflection. 

The  ohlifjations  of  Lcaminp:  to  the  Christian  Relip:ion. 

On  Decency  as  the  only  motive  of  our  apparent  viitu*^ 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  211 

The  importance  of  the  government  of  temper. 

The  value  of  the  art  of  printing. 

The  baneful  effects  of  Indulgence. 

The  mtluence  of  the  Great. 

The  Beauty  and  Happiness  of  an  open  behaviour  and  an  ingennoiu 

Disposition. 
The  utility  of  religious  ceremonies. 
A  good  heart  necessary  to  enjoy  the  beauties  of  nature. 
The  wisdom  of  aiming  at  perfection. 

Family  Disagreements  the  frequent  cause  of  immoral  conduct 
The  selfishness  of  men  of  the  world. 
The  necessity  of  Temperance  to  the  health  of  the  mind. 
Advantages  of  music  as  a  recreation.  % 

Necessity  of  attention  to  things  as  well  as  books. 
The  influence  of  fashion. 
An  honorable  death  preferable  to  a  degraded  life. 


LXVII. 

ABSTRACTS. 

An  abstract  is  a  summary,  or  epitome,  containing  the  suU 
Btance,  a  general  view,  or  the  principal  heads  of  a  treatise  or 
writing. 

The  taking  of  abstracts  from  sermons,  speeches,  essays,  &c.  is  an  exer- 
cise which  the  student  will  find  exceedingly  useful  in  the  cultivation  of 
habits  of  attention,  as  well  as  of  analysis.  In  writing  abstracts,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  endeavor  to  recall  the  exact  language  of  the  original,  the 
purpose  of  the  exercise  is  fully  subserved,  if  the  principal  idea  be  recorded 

Example. 

ON   DIVERSIONS. 

It  is  generally  taken  for  granted,  by  most  young  people  of  fortune,  that 
diversion  is  the  principle  object  of  life ;  and  this  opinion  is  often  earned 
to  such  an  excess,  that  pleasure  seems  to  be  the  great  ruling  principle 
which  directs  all  their  thoughts,  words,  and  actions,  and  which  makes  all 
the  serious  duties  of  life  heavy  and  disgusting.  This  opinion,  however,  is 
QO  less  absurd  than  unhappy,  as  may  be  sho\vn  by  taking  the  other  side  of 
ihe  question,  and  proving  that  there  is  no  pleasure  and  enjoyment  of  life 
leithout  labor. 

The  words  commonly  used  to  signify  diversion  are  these  three,  naicelj, 
relaxation,  amusement,  and  recreation ;  and  the  precise  meaning  of  these 
words  may  lead  us  to  very  useful  instruotism.  The  idea  of  relaxation  is 
taken  from  a  bow,  which  must  be  unbent  when  it  is  not  wanted  to  be  used. 


212  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

that  its  elasticity  may  be  preserved.  Amusement  literally  means  an  oc- 
casional forsaking  of  the  Muses,  or  the  laying  aside  our  books  when  we 
are  weary  with  study ;  and  recreation  is  the  refreshing  or  recreating  of 
our  spirits  when  they  are  exhausted  with  labor,  that  they  may  be  ready, 
in  due  time,  to  resume  it  again. 

From  these  considerations  it  follows  that  the  idle  man  who  has  no  work 
can  have  no  play ;  for,  how  can  he  be  relaxed  who  is  never  bent  ?  How 
can  he  leave  the  Muses  who  is  never  with  them  ?  How  can  play  refresh 
him  who  is  never  exhausted  with  business  ? 

When  diversion  becomes  the  business  of  life,  its  nature  is  changed 
all  rest  presupposes  labor.  He  that  has  no  variety  can  have  no  enjoy 
ment ;  he  is  surfeited  with  pleasure,  and  in  the  better  hours  of  reflection 
would  find  a  refuge  in  labor  itself  And,  indeed,  it  may  be  observed,  that 
there  is  not  a  more  miserable,  as  well  as  a  more  worthless  being,  than  a 
young  person  of  fortune,  who  has  nothing  to  do  but  find  oat  some  new 
way  of  doing  nothing. 

A  sentence  is  passed  upon  all  poor  men,  that  if  they  will  not  work,  they 
shall  not  eat ;  and  a  similar  sentence  seems  passed  upon  the  rich,  who,  u 
they  are  not  in  some  respect  useful  to  the  public,  are  almost  sure  to  be 
come  burthe»6ome  to  themselves.  Tliis  blessing  goes  along  with  every 
flseful  employment ;  it  keeps  a  man  on  good  terms  with  himself,  and 
consequently  in  good  spirits,  and  in  a  capacity  of  pleasing  and  being 
pleased  with  every  innocent  gratification. 

As  labor  is  necessary  to  procure  an  appetite  to  the  body,  there  must 
also  be  some  previous  exercise  of  the  mind  to  prepare  it  for  enjoyment : 
indulgence  on  any  other  terms  is  false  in  itself,  and  ruinous  in  its  conse- 
quences. Mirth  degenerates  into  senseless  riot,  and  gratification  soon 
terminates  in  satiety  and  disgust 

Abstract  of  the  above, 

1.  It  is  a  common  error  to  suppose  that  diversion  should 
form  the  business  of  life,  the  contrary  being  true. 

2.  This  is  proved  by  the  derivation  of  the  words  used  to 
express  diversion  —  viz.,  relaxation,  amusement,  and  recrea- 
tion. 

3.  They  who  have  no  labor  can  have  no  diversion. 

4.  When  diversion  becomes  labor,  it  is  no  longer  diversion. 

5.  All  men  must  have  occupation,  or  be  miserable. 

6.  There  must  be  labor  of  mind  as  well  as  labor  of  the 
body,  for  the  well  being  of  both. 

Exercises, 

Exercises  in  the  practice  of  taking  abstracts  are  frequently  presenteu 
by  the  preacher.  They  may  also  be  found  in  volumes  of  sermons,  in  pe- 
riodical pajjcrs  and  essavs,  in  common  text-books  in  literary  institutionsi, 
and  in  the  wide  circle  of  English  literature  It  is  not,  therefore,  deemed 
important  to  present  them  in  detail  in  this  volume. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  213 


LXVIII. 

The  faculty  of  invention,  it  is  thought,  has  been  sufficiently 
exercised  in  the  preceding  principles  to  enable  the  student  now 
to  fill  out  an  essay  from  heads,  outlines,  or  abstracts,  as  in 
the  following 

Example. 

ON  INDEPENDENCE. 
*  HEADS. 

1.  No  being  perfectly  independent  but  God. 

2.  The  dependence  created  by  trade  and  commerce  is,  in 
fact,  a  kind  of  independence. 

3.  Pecuniary  dependence  the  most  humiliating  of  any. 

4.  Pecuniary  dependence  naturally  degrades  the  mind  and 
4epraves  the  heart. 

5.  Young  people  ought  to  be  particularly  careful  to  avoid 
pecuniary  dependence. 

The  JEssay  founded  on  the  above  heads. 

Independence,  in  the  largest  and  most  unlimited  sense,  is  to  created 
beings,  a  state  impossible.  No  being  is  perfectly  independent,  but  the 
One  Supreme  Being :  all  other  beings,  by  their  very  nature,  are  dependent, 
in  the  first  place,  on  their  Creator,  and  in  the  second,  on  their  fellow- 
creatures  ;  from  whose  good-will  and  assistance  they  derive  their  chief 
happiness. 

This  dependence,  however,  consists  in  a  mutual  interchange  of  good 
offices ;  in  such  a  suitable  return  of  favors  received,  as  makes  each  party 
obliged  to  the  other,  and  at  the  same  time  leaves  each  other  independent 
This  kind  of  dependence  we  find  in  different  countries,  that  trade  in  com 
modities  which  are  necessaiy  to  both  ;  by  which  means,  they  become  use- 
ful, but  not  indebted  to  each  other. 

But  the  most  general  sense  of  independence  is  that  of  property.  The 
circulating  medium,  called  money,  and  which  is  the  representative  of  al 
most  every  thing  that  we  wish,  has  in  it  something  so  sacred,  that  we  can 
never  receive  it  gratuitously,  without  losing  our  dignity  and  becoming 
dependent.  We  may  ask  for  favors  of  another  kind,  and  though  they  are 
granted  to  us,  we  are  not  degraded ;  but  if  once  we  ask  a  pecuniary  favor 
we  lose  our  independence,  and  become  enslaved.  No  more  can  we  con- 
verse with  our  creditor  on  the  same  equal  terms  that  we  did  before.  No 
more  can  we  oontrovert  his  ooinioti,  and  assert  our  own :  a  oanscious  in 


214  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

• 
ferioritv  hafl  deprived  us  of  freedom,  and  we  are  the  slave  of  him  who  wa« 
formerly  our  equal. 

But  the  most  deplorable  part  of  this  picture  is,  that  dependence  not  only 
enslaves  the  mind,  but  tends  to  deprave  the  heart.  We  feel  ourselves 
degraded  by  receiving  pecuniary  favors,  and  conscious  of  what  our  creditor 
must  think  of  us,  when  we  cannot  return  them,  we  are  apt  to  view  hin 
with  an  eye  of  jealousy  and  distaste ;  and  thus  become  guilty  of  one  of  thi 
worst  of  crimes,  the  crime  of  ingratitude. 

Young  people,  who  know  but  little  either  of  themselves  or  of  the  world, 
are  apt  to  think  such  pictures  of  human  nature  misanthropical.  They 
are,  however,  such  as  have  been  drawn  by  the  experience  of  all  ages  and 
nations ;  and  concur  with  several  other  traits  to  show  us  the  natural  de- 
pravity of  man.  If,  therefore,  we  ^vish  to  preserve  ourselves  independent, 
—  if  we  wish  to  maintain  a  proper  dignity  of  character  and  freedom  oi 
opinion,  —  if  we  desire,  above  all  things,  to  preserve  ourselves  from  thai 
depravity  of  heart,  which  we  arc  so  apt  to  sUde  into  when  we  cannot  pay 
our  debts,  —  let  us  beware  of  bonowing  money ;  for,  as  our  immorU' 
Shakspearc  says, 

"  A  loan  oft  loseth  both  itself  and  fVlenil, 
And  borrowing  duUa  the  edge  of  husbandry." 

JExercises. 

On  the  Multiplication  of  Books. 

1.  No  amusements  more  attainable,  or  attended  with  more  satisfaction, 
than  those  derived  from  literary  subjects. 

2.  The  student  can  enjoy  in  his  library  all  that  has  employed  the  active 
mind  of  man. 

3.  Reading  especially  gratifjnng  to  tliose  who  are  confined  by  profession 
or  by  circumstances. 

4.  Much  of  the  student's  time  necessarily  employed  in  retracing  the 
progress  of  those  who  have  gone  l>cfore  him. 

5.  Modem  authors  justify  to  themselves  and  others  the  addition  whi^ii 
they  make  to  the  number  of  books. 


On  the  means  of  rendering  old  age  honorable  and  comfortable. 

..  Man  degenerates  in  his  nature  as  he  advances  in  life. 

2.  That  state  is  wretched,  when  the  heart  loses  its  sensibility. 

3.  Old  age,  tliough  insensible  to  many  pleasures,  has  a  keen  perception 
of  pain. 

4.  Old  age  not  always  attended  with  natural  infirmity. 

5.  A  life  of  tcni}>crance  preserves  the  c(iunniniity  of  the  mind. 

6.  A  devotional  spirit  will  afford  the  most  lively  cnjo\Tnents. 

7.  These  enjoyments  increiise  with  the  nearness  of  the  approach  of 
•hiition. 

8.  That  life  honorable  which  affbrds  the  most  useful  lessons  of  virtue 

9.  That  life  comfortivble,  which,  although  unattended  with  absolute  en 
'"Vanent,  haa  a  solace  for  pain  and  a  prospect  of  enjoyment  near. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  115 

3. 

Moderation  in  our  wishes  necessary. 

1.  Man's  active  mind  seldom  satisfied  with  its  present  condition. 

2.  Restlessness  and  excitement  prevalent. 

3.  Ambition  and  hope  constantly  deceive  us  with  delusive  dreams. 

4.  If  we  dwell  with  satisfaction  on  the  ideal,  the  real  can  never  fulfil 
our  expectations. 

5.  Few  have  realized  their  expectations.  Many  have  been  disappointed 
and  deceived. 

6.  What  is  rational  and  attainable,  should,  therefore,  be  the  only  objects 
of  desire. 

4. 

Wealth  and  fortune  afford  no  ground  for  envy. 

1.  Envy  most  generally  excited  against  wealth  and  fortune. 

2.  The  rich  and  fortunate  are  not  always  happy. 

3.  We  are  deceived  by  appearances. 

4.  The  poor  are  exempted  from  many  evils  to  which  the  rich  are 
subjected. 

5.  The  rich  have  troubles  from  which  the  poor  are  exempted. 

G.  The  real  wants  and  enjoyments  of  life  are  few,  and  are  common  to 
almost  all  classes. 

7.  If  the  balance  of  happiness  be  adjusted  fairly,  it  will  be  found  that 
all  conditions  of  life  fare  equally  well. 


LXIX. 

DIVISIONS  OF  A  SUBJECT. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  of  the  departments  of  composition 
consists  in  methodizing,  or  arranging,  a  subject ;  laying  it  out,  as 
it  were,  and  forming  a  sort  of  plan  on  which  to  treat  it.  The 
writer  may  be  figuratively  said  to  make  a  map  of  it  in  his 
own  mind,  ascertaining  its  boundaries,  that  is  to  say,  the  col- 
lateral subjects  with  which  it  is  connected,  its  dependencies, 
influences,  and  prominent  traits.  And  as  no  two  geographers 
would  probably  lay  down  the  same  country  exactly  in  the 
same  way  —  some  giving  special  attention  to  the  mountains, 
others  to  the  rivers,  others  to  the  sea-coast,  others  to  the  chief 
towns,  &c.,  so  no  two  writers  would  probably  "  map  out "  a 
subject  in  the  same  way.  On  this  subject  the  following  direc- 
tions will  probably  be  useful  to  the  student : 


216  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Having  before  his  mind  the  precise  object  of  inquiry,  and  having  also 
•tated,  either  in  a  formal  manner  or  by  implication,  the  proposition  to  be 
supported,  the  writer  now  should  turn  his  attention  to  thefonuation  of  hia 
plan ;  or,  in  other  words,  he  should  determine  in  what  order  and  conuec- 
lion  his  thoughts  should  be  presented.  Thus  are  formed  the  heads  or 
divisions  of  a  composition.  These  must  correspond  in  their  nature  to  the 
leading  design  and  character  of  the  performance. 

In  argumentative  discussions,  tlie  heads  are  distinct  propositions  or  ar- 
guments, designed  to  support  and  establish  the  leading  proposition. 

In  persuasive  writings,  the  heads  are  the  different  considerations  which 
the  writer  would  place  before  his  readers,  to  influence  their  minds,  and 
induce  them  to  adopt  the  opinions  and  pursue  the  course  which  ho 
recommends. 
In  didactic  writings,  they  are  the  different  points  of  instruction. 
In  nan-ative  and  descriptive  writings,  they  are  the  different  events  and 
scenes  which  are  successively  brought  before  the  mind. 

No  rules  of  universal  application  can  be  given  to  aid  the  writer  in  form- 
ing the  plan,  or  methodizing  his  subject.  His  plan  must  vary  with  the 
subject  and  the  occasion,  Room  is  also  left  for  the  exercise  of  the  taste 
and  judgment  of  the  writer.  But  although  no  special  rules  can  be 
applied,  the  following  general  directions  may  be  serviceable,  so  far,  at  least, 
as  they  may  prevent  or  correct  a  faulty  division : 

First.  Every  division  should  lead  directly  to  the  purpose  which  the 
ivriter  has  in  view,  and  be  strictly  subservient  to  the  rules  of  unity. 

Second.  One  di\nsion  must  not  include  another,  but  be  distinct  and  in 
dependent  in  itself. 

lyiird.  The  different  divisions  should,  so  far  as  may  be,  be  so  compre 
hensive,  us  to  include  all  that  can  with  propriety  be  said  in  i-elation  to  the 
subject,  and,  when  taken  together,  present  the  idea  of  one  whole. 

In  illustration  of  these  rules,  let  us  suppose  that  it  is  proposed  to  write 
an  essay  on  Mliai  Duties.  The  writer  designs  to  show,  as  the  object  of 
the  essay,  that  children  should  render  to  their  parents  obedience  and  love. 
His  division  is  as  follows :  —  Children  should  render  obedience  and  love 
iO  their  parents. 

1.  Because  they  are  under  obligations  to  their  parents  for  benefits  re- 
ceived from  them. 

2.  Becau.se  in  this  way  they  secure  their  OAvn  happiness. 

3.  Because  God  has  commanded  them  to  honor  tlieir  parents. 

In  tliis  division  there  is  a  manifest  reference  to  the  object  of  the  writer 
The  different  heads  are  also  distinct  from  each  other,  and,  taken  together, 
give  a  sufliciently  full  view  of  the  subject.  It  is  in  accordance,  then,  witli 
the  preceding  directions.  Let  us  now  suppose  that  tlie  following  division 
had  been  made :  —  Children  should  render  love  and  obedience  to  tlieir 
parents. 

1.  Because  they  are  under  obligations  to  them  for  benefits  received 
h-om  them. 

2.  Because  their  parents  furnish  them  with  food  and  clotliing. 

3.  Because  in  this  way  they  secure  their  own  hajipiness. 

4.  Because  there  is  a  satisfaction  and  peace  of  conscience  in  the  d's- 
cnarge  of  filial  duties. 

This  division  is  faulty,  since  the  different  parts  are  not  distinct  from 
each  other.  The  second  luuui  is  included  under  the  first,  and  the  fourth 
under  the  third. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  ^   217 

A  third  division  might  be  made  as  follows :  —  Childivn  should  reudor 
obedience  and  love  to  their  parents. 
L  Because  they  should  do  what  is  right 

2.  Because  in  this  way  they  secure  their  own  happiness. 

3.  Because  God  has  commanded  them  to  love  their  parencs. 

It  may  be  said  of  the  first  part  of  this  division,  that  it  has  no  particular 
reference  to  tiie  object  of  the  writer.  It  is  a  truth  of  general  application, 
and  may  with  equal  propriety  be  assigned  in  enforcing  any  other  duty,  as 
well  as  that  of  filial  obedience.  It  is  also  implied  in  the  other  heads, 
Bince  children  do  what  is  right,  when,  in  obedience  to  God's  command, 
they  seek  to  secure  their  own  happiness.* 

In  the  divisions  made  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  in  forming  his  plan,  he 
may  preseat  them  as  independent  topics,  to  be  united  by  the  reasoning 
which  he  employs  in  support  of  each ;  or  as  distinct  propositions,  each 
of  which  has  a  particular  bearing  on  what  he  purposes  to  prove  or  to 
advance 

Example  of  Independent  Topics. 

ON    CHARITY. 

Senses  m  which  it  is  used  in  Scripture. 

The  kindred  virtues  with  which  it  is  allied. 

Its  operation  on  individuals. 

On  Society. 

Field  of  action  extended  by  Christianity. 

Example  of  Distinct  Propositions, 

1.  Charity  employed  in  the  Scriptures  to  denote  all  the  good  affections 
which  we  should  bear  to  one  another. 

2.  Charity  the  most  important  duty  enjoined  in  Holy  Writ 

3.  Charity  is  an  active  principle. 

4.  Charity  does  not  give  every  man  an  equal  title  to  our  love. 

5.  Charity  produces  peculiar  and  important  effects  on  individual  char 
acter. 

Exercises, 

The  importance  of  a  good  education. 

Happiness  foundfed  on  rectitude  of  conduct. 

Virtue  man's  highest  interest. 

The  misfortunes  of  men  mostly  chargeable  on  themselves. 

*  The  question  may  arise,  says  Mr.  Newman,  from  whose  valuable 
treatise  on  Rhetoric  the  above  directions  are  principally  derived.  Is  it  of 
importance  distinctly  to  state  the  plan  which  is  pursued  in  treating  any 
subject  ?  To  this  question  he  replies,  that  in  the  treatment  of  intricate  sub- 
jects, where  there  are  many  divisions,  and  where  it  is  of  importance  that 
the  order  and  connection  of  each  part  should  be  carefully  observed,  to  state 
the  divisions  is  the  better  course.  But  it  is  far  from  being  essential. 
Though  we  never  should  write  without  forming  a  distinct  plan  for  our  own 
use  yet  it  mav  often  be  best  to  let  others  gather  this  plan  from  reading  our 
productions.  'A  plan  is  a  species  of  scaffolding  to  aid  us  in  erecting  tha 
bniidmg.  When  the  edifice  is  finished,  we  may  let  the  scaffoldinjt  f»n. 
19 


218  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    0OMPO8ITIOJI. 

The  soul  is  immortal. 

God  is  eternal. 

Omniscience  and  omnipresence  of  the  Deity. 

Diffidence  of  our  abilities  a  mark  of  wisdom. 

The  importance  of  order  in  the  distribution  of  time. 

Change  of  external  condition  often  adverse  to  virtue. 

The  mortifications  of  vice  greater  than  those  of  virtue. 

Fortitude  of  mind. 

The  influence  of  devotion  on  the  happiness  of  mankind. 

The  power  of  custom. 

The  real  and  solid  enjoyments  of  life. 

The  vanity  of  wealth. 

Nothing  formed  in  vain. 

Remark.  The  plan,  or  the  right  division  of  a  composition  should  be  a 
prominent  object  of  attention  and  study.  The  young  writer  will  find  il 
a  very  usefuf  exercise,  in  all  his  compositions,  to  lay  down  his  plan  first, 
before  writing.  In  this  way  habits  of  consecutive  thinking  will  be  formed 
and  a  principle  of  oi-der  established  in  the  mind,  which  will  be  imparted 
to  every  subject  of  its  contemplation. 


LXX. 

AMPLIFICATION. 

Amplification  may  be  defined  an  enlargement,  by  variou 
examples  and  proofs. 

Various  are  the  ways  in  which  writers  amplify,  or  enlarge, 
upon  the  propositions  which  they  advance.  The  ingenuity  of 
the  writer  may  here  have  full  play,  providing  that  he  do  not 
violate  the  unity  of  his  subject.  There  are,  however,  some 
general  principles  which  the  student  should  have  in  view  in 
the  performance  of  such  an  exercise. 

The  principal  object  of  amplification  is  to  exhibit  more  fully  the  mean- 
ing of  what  has  been  advanced.     This  maybe  done  as  follows  : 

1.  By  formal  definitions  and  paraphrases  of  the  propositions  forming 
the  heads  of  a  subject.  This  is  particularly  requisite  when  the  wonh 
emplovcd  in  the  proposition  are  ambiguous,  new,  or  employed  differently 
from  tlicir  common  acceptation. 

2.  By  presenting  the  proposition  in  various  forms  of  expression,  avoid- 
ing absolute  tautology,  and  showing  in  what  general  or  restricted  sense 
the  words  employed  should  be  received,  explaining  the  manner,  also,  ic 
which  to  guard  against  mistakes. 

3.  By  f  iving  individual  instances,  explanatory  of  the  general  proposi 
tion. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSIXION.  219 

4.  By  similes,  comparisons,  antitheses,  and  historical  allusions. 

Writings  which  are  designed  to  excite  emotions,  and  to  influence  the 
wiU,  require  a  more  extended  amplification  than  those  which  are  argument- 
ative, or  those  addressed  directly  to  the  understanding.  In  the  former 
case,  it  is  desirable  that  the  mind  should  be  led  to  dwell  on  what  is  pre- 
sented to  it,  and  to  notice  whatever  is  fitted  and  designed  to  excite  the 
desired  emotion.  Hence,  copiousness  of  detail,  and  a  full  and  minute 
statement  of  attending  circumstances,  are  required.  But  an  argument 
should  be  stated  concisely  and  simply,  excepting  only  when  it  is  in  itself 
ibstruse  and  complex,  and  when  it  is  addressed  to  minds  uncultivatetf 
and  unaccustomed  to  connected  reasonings.  In  such  cases,  even  an  ar 
gument  may,  with  propriety,  be'  amplified  or  enlarged. 

The  successful  exercise  of  amplification  depends, 

1.  Upon  extent  and  command  of  knowledge ; 

2.  On  the  power  of  illustration  5 

3.  On  definiteness  of  thought  in  our  reasonings ; 

4.  On  copiousness  of  expression. 

[The  subjects  of  the  Exercises,  in  various  parts  of  this  volume,  will  pr 
sent  a  sufficient  opportunity  for  the  student  to  practise  the  art  of  ampV 
fication.] 


LXXI. 

ILLUSTRATION  OF  A  SUBJECT. 

Illustration  properly  signifies  the  rendering  clear  what  is 
obscure  or  abstruse. 

It  is  often  the  case,  that  subjects  for  consideration  are  pre- 
sented which  at  first  view  appear  to  afford  no  avenue  by 
which  they  may  be  approached.  All  appears  dark  around 
them ;  the  subjects  themselves  appear  isolated  and  distinct 
from  any  form  of  close  examination.  But  as  they  are  re- 
volved in  the  mind,  some  connecting  point  is  discovered,  in 
which  they  may  at  last  be  seen  to  be  united  or  closely  allied 
Ut  other  subjects,  and  plain  and  clear  deductions  and  infer- 
ences may  be  drawn  from  them.  The  process  by  which  the 
illustration  of  such  subjects  may  be  effected,  is  thus  explained 
by  Mr.  Jardine,  in  his  remarks  on  what  he  calls  "  The  Fourth 
Order  of  Themes."  * 

"  To  investigate,  is,  in  the  original  sense  of  the  word,  to  search  out  for  an 
absent  object,  by  discovering  and  following  out  the  traces  which  it  has  left 

*  Jardine's  "  Outlines  of  a  Philosophical  Education,"  page  322. 


220  AIDS    TO     ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

m  the  path  over  which  it  has  passed.  Thus,  we  attempt  to  discover  a  per 
son  who  has  concealed  himself,  by  marking  his  footsteps  towards  the  place 
of  his  retreat ;  and  on  the  same  principle,  the  hound  may  be  literally  said 
to  investigate  tlie  track  of  the  fox,  by  pursuing  the  scent,  which  remains  on 
the  line  along  which  the  latter  had  directed  his  flight.  * 

♦*  To  these  familiar  processes  may  be  compared  the  keen  and  earnest 
search  of  the  mind,  in  its  endeavors  to  ascertain  the  unknown  causes  and 
principles  of  things.  Indeed,  the  perplexed  anxiety  which  the  set-dog  often 
exhibits  in  the  search  of  game,  aflbrds  a  striking  example  of  the  careful, 
anxious,  and  occasionally  disappointed  state  of  mind  which  the  philosopher 
frequently  experiences  in  his  researches  after  truth.  Trusting  to  a  persua- 
sion, natural  to  the  human  mind,  that  everjr  effect  must  have  a  cause,  and 
that  the  connection  between  causes  and  their  effects  is  constant  and'uni 
form,  the  student  of  nature  proceeds  through  the  labyrinth  of  phenomena, 
guided  by  the  chain  which  associates  every  event  he  witnesses  v/ith  some 
prior  event,  which  he  infers  must  have  preceded  it,  until  at  length  he 
arrives  at  that  ultimate  point,  which  marks  the  boundary  of  physical  cans 
ation,  and  limits  the  researches  of  philosophy. 

"  Suppose,  for  example,  he  proposes,  as  an  object  of  investigation,  to  dis 
cover  the  state  ot  Egypt  in  respect  to  government,  science,  and  art,  in  the 
time  of  Moses,  and  tne  only  datum  given,  is  this  single  fact  —  that  fine 
linen  existed  in  Egypt  at  that  period.  In  what  manner  should  the  student 
be  directed  to  proceed  ?  He  must  begin  with  directing  his  attention  closely 
to  this  fact  as  an  effect,  and  then  consider  that  fine  linen  —  that  is,  fine 
comparatively  to  other  fabrics  at  that  time  —  must  be  formed  of  fine  threads, 
which  can  only  be  made  of  fine  flax,  which  must  also  have  gone  through 
various  acts  of  preparation,  in  which  many  workmen  are  employed,  before 
the  threads  could  be  made  into  fine  linen. 

The  production  oi  fine  flax  supposes  an  improved  state  of  agriculture,  and 
the  raising  of  many  other  kinds  or  grain,  —  wneat,  barley,  &c.,  —  to  support 
the  cultivators  of  nax,  and  the  artists  who  form  it  into  cloth.  In  no  country 
can  flax  be  the  sole  article  of  cultivation.  It  may  be,  then,  certainly  in 
ferred,  that,  in  the  time  of  Moses,  the  art  of  agriculture,  and  the  arts  con 
nected  with  it,  had  arrived  at  considerable  perfection. 

Returning  again  to  the  datum,  fine  linen  can  be  woven  only  in  a  fine 
loom,  which  must  be  accommodated  to  the  fine  texture  of  the  tlireads ;  and 
a  fine  loom  cannot  be  made  without  much  skill  in  the  arts  of  working  metal 
and  wood.  The  former  is  extracted,  with  great  labor,  from  ores,  dug  from 
the  bowels  of  the  earth,  and  must  go  through  many  difficult  and  laborious 

•  The  followlnR  remarkable  Instance  of  the  wonderful  powers  of  reasoning  possessed 
by  the  alR)rrKlnc8  of  this  country,  Is  presented  to  the  student,  to  enable  him  to  prose- 
cute siml!iir  innulries  to  a  satisfactory  result.  The  extract  is  from  "  Thatcher's  L'rris 
of  the  Indiiiiis,'' 

"  Owiiik'  partly  to  in  ;  ion,  doubtless,  as  well  as  to  his  mode  of  Ivaig  from 

thlltlhood  up,  the  m  j  lian  are  extremely  acute.    It  is  related,  in  modem 

times,  that  a  nuntei.  ■  one  of  the  western  tribes,  on  his  return  home  to 

his  hut  one  day,  dis(  cv  .11 II  in.ii  his  venison,  which  hail  been  liung  up  to  dry,  had 
been  stolen.  After  taking;  ubservations  on  th?  spot,  lie  set  otT  in  pursuit  of  the  thief, 
wliom  he  traced  tlirouuli  tlu'  woods.  Having;  Kone  a  little  distance,  he  met  .some  per- 
sons, of  whom  he  liujuircd,  whether  they  had  seen  a  little,  old  ichite  mat),  with  a  short 
gun,  accompanied  liy  a  nuall  dog,  with  a  $hort  tail.  They  replied  in  the  aftlrmatlve  ; 
and  upon  the  Indian  assurinj;  them  that  the  man  thus  descrioed  had  stolen  his  veni- 
son, they  desired  to  be  iniormed  how  he  was  able  to  give  such  a  minute  description 
r.f  a  person  he  hail  never  M'tu.  The  Indian  replied  thus :  The  thief  is  a  liltU  vian,  I 
know  by  his  having  made  a  ))ile  of  stones  to  sttmd  upon,  In  order  to  reach  the  venison 
from  the  heit.'ht  I  luniK  it,  stjindlng  on  the  ground.  That  he  is  an  old  man,  I  know  by 
h.s  short  stops,  which  I  have  traced  over  the  dead  leaves  in  the  woods ;  that  he  Is  a 
white  man,  1  know  by  his  turnhiK  out  his  toes  when  he  walks,  which  an  Indian  never 
does;  hl.1  pun,  I  know  to  be  fhort.  by  the  mark  the  muzzle  made  in  rubbinp  the  bark 
of  the  tree  where  it  leaned  ;  that  Ills  doK  is  small,  I  know  by  his  tracks,  and  that  he 
has  a  short  ta*i,  I  discovered  by  the  mark  it  made  In  the  dust  where  he  was  sittins:.  at 
tbo  time  that  Us  master  was  taking  down  Uio  vcnLson. " 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  221 

processes  before  it  becomes  malleable.  The  latter,  also,  must  undergo 
much  preparation  before  it  can  go  into  the  hands  of  the  carpenter ;  and  the 
loom  itself  is  a  complex  machine,  supposing  great  skill  and  progress  of  the 
mechanical  arts  in  Egypt  at  the  time  of  Moses. 

The  weaving  of  fine  linen,  too,  supposes  that  artists,  by  imitation  and  ex 
ample,  have  acquired  skill  and  dexterity  in  that  art ;  and  such  perfection 
cannot  be  expected  in  any  country,  till  a  division  of  labor — the  greatest 
instrument  of  improvement  in  all  the  arts  —  be  in  some  degree  established 

The  skilful  weaver  must  be  wholly  occupied  in  making  fine  linen  ;  and, 
therefore,  there  must  exist  many  other  artists  employed  in  providing  fooi, 
clothes,  and  lodging,  —  the  necessaries  and  conveniences  of  life. 

Before  the  arts  could  have  made  such  progress  in  any  country,  men  must 
have  acquired  much  knowledge  of  facts  and  events,  by  observation  and  ex 
perience  ;  and  have  laid  the  foundation  of  general  knowledge,  by  speculat 
ing  on  means  of  improving  the  arts;  on  removing  the  obstacles  which 
retard  their  progress,  and  in  opening  up  prospects  of  higher  degrees  of  jj/er 
fection. 

Farther,  without  taking  up  time  to  follow  the  natural  and  connected  pro 
gress  of  the  arts  from  their  rude  to  their  more  perfect  state,  —  I  conclude 
this  process  of  investigation  with  observing,  that  there  can  bo  little  progress 
either  in  art  or  science  in  any  countrv,  without  the  existence  of  a  supreme, 
controlling  power,  in  some  or  other  of  its  foraas ;  by  which  men  are  com 
pelled  to  live  in  peace  and  tranquillity,  and  the  different  orders  of  society 
are  prevented  from  encroaching  on  each  other,  by  every  individual  being 
kept  in  his  proper  station.  No  arts  or  division  of  labor,  —  no  fine  linen  or 
fine  workmanship  of  any  kind,  can  be  found  in  those  nations  which  live  in 
continual  warfare,  either  among  themselves,  or  with  their  neighbors.  Thus, 
by  such  a  continued  chain  of  regular  and  progressive  deductions,  proceed- 
ing from  the  datirni  with  which  it  began,  and  without  information  from  any 
other  quarter,  we  have  sufficient  reason  to  believe,  that,  at  the  time  of 
Moses,  Egypt  was  a  great  and  populous  country  ;  that  the  arts  and  sciences 
had  made  considerable  progress,  and  that  government  and  laws  were  estab 
lished. 

Suhjects  for  illustration. 

What  may  be  learned  of  the  state  of  Greece,  and  of  the  character  of 
that  nation  at  the  time  when  Homer  wrote  the  Iliad,  without  drawing  in- 
formation from  any  other  source  than  from  the  Iliad  itself? 

What  was  the  state  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  as  indicated  by  the 
poems  of  Ossian  ?  Are  there  any  marks  in  these  poems  of  a  later  origin 
than  that  generally  assigned  to  them  1 

What  were  the  causes  which  produced  an  absolute  government  at  Rome 
under  Augustus  ? 

What  occasioned  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  1 

Is  the  character  of  Hannibal,  in  Livy,  supported  by  the  narrative  he  haa 
given  of  his  transactions  ? 

What  were  the  grounds  upon  which  the  Trojans  trusted  to  Simon's 
account  of  the  wooden  horse  ? 

What  are  the  difficulties  which  occur  in  forming  a  standard  of  taste  1 

In  what  sense  is  poetry  called  an  imitative  art  ? 

What  are  the  proofs  by  which  Home  Tooke  confirms  his  theory  of  the 
ongin  of  prepositions  and  conjunctions  in  the  English  language  ? 

What  are  the  standards  by  which  we  judge  of  the  perfection  of  one  Ian 
gnage  above  another  'i 

What  are  the  causes  which  render  it  difficult  for  the  student  to  acquire 

habit  of  attention  ? 

What  was  the  origin  of  the  present  political  parties  in  the  United  States  < 
19* 


222  AIl/S    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

LXXII. 

ON  THE  TREATMENT  OF  A  SUBJECT 

The  first  and  leading  object  of  attention  in  every  compo- 
Bition  is,  to  determine  the  precise  point  of  inquiry,  —  the 
proposition  which  is  to  be  laid  down  and  supported,  or  the 
subject  which  is  to  be  explained  or  described.  Unless  the 
writer  has  steadily  before  him  some  fixed  purpose  which  he 
w^9uld  obtain,  or  some  point  which  he  would  reach,  he  will  be 
liatile  to  go  astray,  —  to  lose  himself  and  his  readers.  It  is 
not  until  he  has  determined  on  the  definite  object  that  he  pro- 
poses to  accomplish,  that  he  can  know  what  views  to  present, 
and  how  to  dwell  on  the  different  topics  he  may  discuss. 

Let  us  suppose,  in  illustrating  the  views  now  to  be  presented,  that  the 
thoughts  of  the  writer  have  been  turned  towards  the  manifestations  of 
wisdom,  goodness,  and  power,  in  the  works  of  creation  around  him,  and 
he  wishes  his  readers  to  be  mindful  of  these  things.  By  asking  himself 
the  three  following  questions  with  regard  to  the  train  of  thought  in  his 
mind,  his  ideas  will  immediately  assume  some  definite  forai,  and  he  will 
be  enabled  to  present  them  in  a  lucid  and  systematic  manner. 

1st.  What  is  the  fact? 

2d.  Why  is  it  so  1 

3d.  What  consequences  result  from  it  ? 

And  with  regard  to  the  first  point  of  inquiry,  namely, '  What  is  the 
fact  ? '  in  reply  it  may  be  said,  —  that,  in  the  material  world,  there  are 
numerous  indications  of  infinite  wisdom  and  benevolence,  and  of  Al- 
mighty power. 

2.  '  Why  is  it  so  ? '  or.  How  is  Uie  existence  of  these  works  to  be  ac 
counted  for  ?  What  is  the  cause  1  To  which  it  may  be  replied,  that  God 
created  them. 

3.  Again  ;  '  What  consequences  result  from  it  ? '  To  this  the  answei 
mav  be  given,  that  —  Men  should  live  mindful  of  God. 

fiy  embodying  the  results  of  these  inquiries,  he  will  obtain  the  follow 
ing  conclusion  or  point  at  which  he  aimed,  namely,  —  Men  who  live  in  the 
midst  of  objects  which  show  forth  the  perfections  of  the  great  Creatoi 
should  live  mirtdful  of  him. 

It  is  not  necessary,  that  the  proposition  to  be  supported  should  alwayt 
be  thus  fonnally  suited,  though  this  is  usually  done  in  writing  of  an  at 
gumcntativc  nature.  Sometimes  it  is  elegantly  impHed,  or  left  to  be  in 
fcrrod  from  the  introductory  remarks. 

It  is  a  common  impression  with  young  writers,  that  the  wider  the  field 
of  inquiry  on  which  they  enter,  the  more  abundant  and  obvious  will  be 
the  thoughts  which  will  ofier  themselves  for  their  use.  Hence,  by  se- 
lecting some  general  sul>ject,  they  hope  to  secure  copiousness  of  matter, 
and  thus  to  find  an  easier  task.  Experience,  however,  shows  that  the 
rev«r8e  is  tme,  —  that,  as  the  field  of  inquiry  is  narrowed,  questions  arise 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  223 

nioie  exciting  to  the  mind,  and  thoughts  are  suggested  of  greater  value 
and  interest  to  the  readers.  Suppose,  as  an  illustration,  that  a  writer 
proposes  to  himself  to  write  an  essay  on  '  Literature.'  Amidst  the  nu 
merous  topics  which  might  be  treated  upon  under  this  term,  no  unity 
could  be  preserved.  The  thoughts  advanced  would  be  common-place  and 
uninteresting.  But  let  some  distinct  inquiry  be  proposed,  or  some  asser- 
tion be  made  and  supported,  and  there  will  be  an  influx  of  interesting 
thoughts  presented  in  a  distinct  and  connected  manner. 

Instead,  therefore,  of  the  general  subject  '  Literature^^  let  us  suppose  a 
particular  subject,  namely,  a  '  JDefence  of  literary  studies  in  men  of  busi- 
ness '  is  proposed.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  following  model  how  spontane- 
ously, as  it  were,  ideas  will  present  themselves,  and  with  what  ease  thev 
can  be  ai-ranged  with  the  strictest  regard  to  unity. 

Example. 

A  DEFENCE  OP  LITERARY  STUDIES  IN  MEN  OF  BUSINESS. 

Among  the  cautions  which  prudence  and  worldly  wisdom  inculcate  on 
the  young,  or  at  least  among  those  sober  truths  which  experience  often  pre 
tencls  to  have  acquired,  is  that  danger,  which  is  said  to  resiilt  from  the  pur 
suit  of  letters  and  of  science,  in  men  destined  for  the  labors  of  business,  for 
the  active  exertions  of  professional  life.  The  abstraction  of  learning,  the 
speculations  of  science,  and  the  visionary  excursions  of  fancy  are  fatal,  it  is 
said,  to  the  steady  pursuit  of  common  objects,  to  the  habits  of  plodding  in 
dustry,  which  ordinary  business  demands.  The  fineness  of  mind  which  is 
created  or  increased  by  the  study  of  letters,  or  the  admiration  of  the  arts,  is 
supposed  to  incapacitate  a  man  for  the  drudgery  by  which  professional 
eminence  is  gained ;  as  a  nicely  tempered  edge,  applied  to  a  coarse  and 
rugged  material,  is  unable  to  perform  what  a  more  common  instrument 
would  have  successfully  achieved.  A  young  man,  destined  for  law  or  com 
merce,  is  advised  to  look  only  into  his  folio  of  precedents,  or  his  method  of 
Dook-keeping ;  and  dulness  is  pointed  to  his  homage,  as  that  benevolent 
goddess,  under  whose  protection  the  honors  of  station  and  the  blessings  of 
opulence  are  to  be  obtained ;  while  learning  and  genius  are  proscribed,  a^ 
leading  their  votaries  to  barren  indigence  and  merited  neglect. 

In  doubting  the  truth  of  these  assertions,  I  think  I  shall  not  entertain  any 
hvirtful  degree  of  skepticism,  because  the  general  current  of  opinion  seems, 
of  late  years,  to  have  set  too  strongly  in  the  contrary  direction,  and  one 
may  endeavor  to  prop  the  falling  cause  of  literature,  without  being  accused 
of  blameable  or  dangerous  partiality. 

In  the  examples  which  memory  and  experience  produce  of  idleness,  of 
dissipation,  and  of  poverty,  brought  on  by  indulgence  of  literary  or  poetical 
enthusiasm,  the  evidence  "must  necessarily  be  on  one  side  of  the  question 
only.  Of  the  few  whom  learning  or  genius  has  led  astray,  the  ill  success 
or  the  ruin  is  marked  by  the  celebrity  of  the  sufferer.  Of  the  many  who 
have  been  as  dull  as  they  were  profligate,  and  as  ignorant  as  they  were 
poor,  the  fate  is  unknown,  from  the  insignificance  of  those  by  whom  it  was 
endured.  If  we  may  reason  a  priori  on  the  matter,  the  chance,  I  think, 
should  be  on  the  side  of  literature.  In  young  minds  of  any  vivacity,  there 
IS  a  natural  aversion  to  the  drudgery  of  business,  which  is  seldom  overcome, 
till  the  effervescence  of  youth  is  allayed  by  the  progress  of  time  and  habit, 
or  till  that  -^ery  warmth  is  enlisted  on  the  side  of  their  profession,  by  tne 
opening  prospects  of  ambition  or  emolument.  From  this  tyranny,  as  youth 
conceives  it,  of  attention  and  of  labor,  relief  is  commonly  sought  from  some 
favorite  avocation  or  amusem*  nt  for  which  a  young  man  either  finds  or 


224  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Steals  a  portion  of  his  time,  either  patiently  plods  through  his  task,  in  expec- 
tation or  its  approach,  or  anticipates  its  arrival  by  deserting  his  work  before 
tlie  legal  period  for  amusement  is  arrived.  It  may  fairly  be  questioned, 
whether  tlie  most  innocent  of  these  amusements  is  either  so  honorable  or  so 
gafe  as  the  avocation  of  learning  or  of  science.  Of  minds  uninformed  and 
gross,  whom  youthful  spirits  agitate,  but  fancy  and  feeling  have  no  power 
to  impel,  the  amusement  will  generally  be  boisterous  or  efifeminate,  wiU 
either  dissipate  their  attention,  or  weaken  their  force.  The  emplojmient  of 
a  young  man's  vacant  hours  is  often  too  little  attended  to  by  those  rigid  mas 
ters.  who  exact  the  most  scrupulous  observance  of  the  periods  destined  for 
business.  The  waste  of  time  is,  undoubtedly,  a  very  calculable  loss ;  but  the 
waste  or  the  depravation  of  mind  is  a  loss  of  a  n^':ch  higher  denomination. 
The  votary  of  study,  or  the  enthusiast  of  fancy,  may  incur  the  first,  but 
the  latter  will  be  suffered  chiefly  by  him  whose  ignorance  or  want  of  imag 
[nation  has  left  him  to  the  grossness  of  mere  sensual  enjoyments. 

In  this,  as  in  other  respects,  the  love  of  letters  is  friendly  to  sober  man 
nei*s  and  virtuous  conduct,  wnich,  in  every  profession,  is  the  road  to  success 
and  to  respect.  Without  adopting  the  common-place  reflections  against 
some  particular  departments,  it  must  be  allowed,  that,  in  mere  men  of  busi 
ness,  there  is  a  certain  professional  rule  of  right,  which  is  not  always  honor 
able,  and,  though  meant  to  be  selfish,  very  seldom  profits.  A  superior 
education  generally  corrects  thi_s,  by  opening  the  mind  to  different  motives 
of  action,  to  the  feelings  of  delicacy,  the  sense  of  honor,  and  a  contempt  oi 
wealth,  when  earned  by  a  desertion  of  those  principles. 

To  the  improvement  of  our  faculties  as  well  as  of  our  principles,  the  love  ot 
letters  appears  to  be  favorable.  Letters  require  a  certain  sort  of  application, 
though  of  a  kind,  perhaps,  very  different  from  that  which  business  would 
recommend.  Granting  that  they  are  unprofitable  in  themselves,  as  that 
word  is  used  in  the  language  of  the  world,  yet,  as  developing  the  powers  of 
thought  and  reflection,  they  may  be  an  amusement  of  some  use,  as  those 
sports  of  children,  in  which  numbers  are  used  to  familiarize  them  to  the 
elements  of  arithmetic.  They  give  room  for  the  exercise  of  that  discern 
ment,  that  comparison  of  objects,  that  distinction  of  causes,  which  is  to  in 
crease  the  skill  of  the  physician,  to  guwe  the  speculations  of  the  merchant, 
and  to  prompt  the  arguments  or  the  lawyer ;  and,  though  some  professions 
employ  but  very  few  faculties  of  the  minS,  yet  there  is  scarcely  any  branch 
of  business  in  which  a  man  who  can  think  will  not  excel  him  who  can  only 
labor.  We  shall  accordingly  find,  in  many  departments  where  learned  in 
formation  seemed  of  all  qualities  the  least  necessary,  that  those  who  pos 
sessed  it.  in  a  degree  above  their  fellows,  have  found, Yrom  that  very  circmn 
stance,  the  road  to  eminence  and  wealth. 

But  I  must  often  repeat,  that  wealth  does  not  necessarily  create  happi 
ness,  nor  confer  dienity ;  a  truth  which  it  may  be  thought  declamation  to 
insist  on,  but  whicn  the  present  time  seems  particularly  to  require  being 
told. 

The  love  of  letters  is  connected  with  an  independence  and  delicacy  of 
mind,  which  is  a  great  preservative  against  that  servile  homage,  which  ab- 
ject men  pay  to  fortune  ;  and  there  is  a  certain  classical  pride,  which,  from 
the  society  of  Socrates  and  IMuto,  Cicero  and  Atticns,  looks  down  with  an 
honest  disdain  on  the  wealth-blown  insects  of  modern  times,  neither  en- 
lightened by  knowledge,  nor  ennobled  by  virtue. 

In  the  possession,  indeed,  of  what  he  has  attained,  in  that  rest  and  retire 
ment  from  his  labors,  with  the  hopes  of  which  his  mtigues  were  lightened 
and  his  cares  were  smoothed,  the  mere  man  of  business  frequently  under 
goes  suffering,  instead  of  finding  enjovment.  To  be  busy  as  one'ought  is 
an  easy  art;  but  to  know  how  to  be  idle  is  a  very  superior  accomplishment. 
This  difficulty  is  much  increased  with  persons  to  whom  the  habit  of  em 
ployment  has  made  some  active  exertion  necessary;  who  canno*  sleep 
nontented  in  the  torpor  of  indolence,  or  amuse  the-mselves  with  thos«  lijjbt«i 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSIIION.  225 

trifles  in  which  he,  who  inherited  idleness  as  he  did  fortune,  from  his  an 
cestors,  has  been  accustomed  to  find  amusement.  The  misei-ies  and  mis 
Tortunes  of  the  '  retired  pleasures  '  of  men  of  business,  have  been  frequently 
matter  of  speculation  to  the  moralist,  and  of  ridicule  to  the  wit.  But  he 
who  has  mixed  general  knowledge  with  professional  skill,  and  literary 
amusements  with  professional  labor,  will  have  some  stock  wherewith  to 
support  him  in  idleness,  some  spring  for  his  mind  when  unbent  from  busi 
ness,  some  employment  for  those  hours,  which  retirement  and  solitude  has 
left  vacant  and  unoccupied.  Independence  in  the  use  of  one's  time  is  not 
tha  least  valuable  species  of  freedom.     This  liberty  the  man  of  letters  en- 

{'ojb  ,  while  the  ignorant  and  the  illiterate  often  retire  from  the  thraldom  of 
>ii»iness,  only  to  become  tlie  slaves  of  languor,  intemperance,  or  vice.  But 
tne  situation  in  which  the  advantages  of  that  endowment  of  mind,  which 
letters  bestow,  are  chiefly  conspicuous,  is  old  age,  when  a  man's  society  is 
necessarily  circumscribed,  and  his  powers  of  active  enjoyment  are  unavoid- 
ably diminished.  Unfit  for  the  bustle  of  affairs,  and.  the  amusements  of  his 
youth,  an  old  man,  if  he  has  no  source  of  mental  exertion  or  employment, 
often  settles  into  the  gloom  of  melancholy  and  peevishness,  or  petrifies  his 
feelings  by  habitual  intoxication.  From  an  old  man,  whose  gratifications 
were  solely  derived  from  those  sensual  appetites  which  time  has  blunted,  oi 
from  those  trivial  amusements  which  youth  only  can  share,  age  has  cut  off 
almost  every  source  of  enjoyment.  But  to  him  who  has  stored  his  mind  with 
the  information,  and  can  still  employ  it  in  the  amusement  of  letters,  this 
blank  of  life  is  admirably  filled  up.  He  acts,  he  thinks,  and  he  feels  witl: 
that  literary  world,  whose  society  he  can  at  all  times  enjoy.  There  is,  per 
haps,  no  state  more  capable  of  comfort  to  ourselves,  or  more  attractive  o'* 
veneration  from  others,  than  that  which  such  an  old  age  affords  ;  it  is  then 
the  twilight  of  the  passions,  when  they  are  mitigated,  but  not  extinguished, 
and  spread  their  gentle  influence  over  the  evening  of  our  day,  in  alliance 
with  reason  and  in  amity  with  virtue. 


REMARKS   AND    ANALYSIS. 

In  examining  the  preceding  example  of  argumentative  writing,  the 
principal  object  of  attention  will  be,  the  plan  or  management  of  the  subject. 

The  introduction  consists  of  an  indirect  statement  of  the  question  to 
be  agitated.  We  are  told  how  those  have  thought  and  reasoned,  whose 
opinions  are  opposed  to  the  opinions  of  the  writer.  This  statement  is  dis- 
tinctly, and  fai^-ly,  and  skilfully  made.  Our  literary  taste  is  gratified  by 
the  illustrations  and  ornaments  of  language  which  are  found.  Our  curi- 
osity is  roused,  and  we  are  ready  to  enter  with  interest  on  the  proposed 
investigation.  It  should  be  noticed,  that  there  is  no  formal  statement  of 
the  proposition  which  is  to  be  supported,  but  that  it  is  clearly  and  happily 
implied  in  the  introductory  paragraphs. 

After  the  introduction,  follows  the  refutation  of  an  objection.  That  this 
IS  the  proper  place  for  considering  the  objection  stated,  is  evident,  since, 
had  it  been  unnoticed,  or  its  refutation  defen-ed  to  the  close  of  the  essay,  the 
minds  of  readers  might  have  been  prevented  by  its  influence  from  giving 
due  weight  to  the  arguments  adduced.  There  are  two  modes  of  refuting 
objections ;  one,  by  denying  the  premises  from  which  a  conclusion  is 
drawn,  —  the  other,  by  showing  that  the  conclusion  does  not  truly  follow 
from  the  premises.  The  objection  here  considered  is,  that  facts  establish 
the  opposite  of  the  opinion  advanced  by  the  writer ;  of  course,  the  opinion 
can  have  no  good  foundation.  To  refute  the  objection,  the  premise  19 
denied.    Facts  ars  o*^herwise,  says  the  writer,  and  a  satisfactory  reason  is 


226  >iDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

assigned  why  a  different  impression  as  to  the  bearing  of  facts  en  the  case 
has  prevailed  Having  assigned  this  reason,  the  writer  leaves  the  point 
at  issue,  as  to  facts  in  the  case,  to  be  determined  by  the  observation  and 
the  good  sense  of  his  readers.  Having  thus  introduced  his  subject  to  our 
attention,  stating  by  implication  the  proposition  to  be  examine!,  and 
having  removed  an  objection  which  presented  itself  at  the  threshold,  the 
writer  now  enters  on  the  direct  examination  of  his  subject. 

The  following  proposition  is  supported :  Men  of  business  may  advan- 
tageously devote  a  portion  of  their  time  to  literary  pursuits. 

1st  Argument.  Young  men  of  business  should  engage  in  literary  studies, 
iince  in  them  is  found  a  pleasant  relaxation  and  security  against  hurtful 
Indulgences. 

2d  Argument.  Young  men  of  business  should  engage  in  literary  studies, 
because  in  this  way  they  acquire  a  refinement  and  exaltation  of  mind, 
which  raises  them  above  grovelling  and  selfish  principles  and  conduct 

3d  Argument.  Young  men  of  business  should  engage  in  literary  studies, 
because  the  cultivation  of  letters  is  favorable  to  the  improvement  of  the 
mind. 

4th  Argument.  A  man  of  business  should  engage  in  literary  pursuits, 
because  in  this  way  he  acquires  an  independence  of  feeling,  which  prepares 
him  to  enjoy  his  wealth.  Without  cultivation  of  mind  and  literary  taste, 
the  retirement  of  the  man  of  wealth  is  wearisome  and  disgusting  to  liim. 

bth  Argum£rd.  Men  of  business  should  cultivate  letters,  that  they  may 
find  in  them  grateful  employment  for  old  age. 

This  is  the  plan.  Upon  examination,  we  find  that  it  conforms  to  the 
general  directions  given.  The  several  heads  are  distinct  from  each  other. 
They  have  a  similar  bearing  on  the  leading  proposition  to  be  supported, 
and  tsiken  together  they  give  a  unity  to  the  subject. 

The  kind  of  argument  here  used,  is  the  argument  from  cause  to  effect 
Different  reasons  are  stated,  which  account  for  and  support  the  assertion 
that  is  made,  and  which  forms  the  leading  proposition.  Let  us  now  take 
a  nearer  view  of  these  different  arguments,  and  see  in  what  way  they 
are  supported.  Under  the  first  argument,  tlie  reasoning  is  as  follows* 
1.  Young  men  in  business  will  have  relaxation  and  amusement  2.  Unless 
those  of  a  salutary  kind  are  provided,  they  will  fall  into  such  as  are  hurt- 
ful. Hence  the  importance  of  their  behig  directed  to  literary  pursuits, 
which  may  interest  and  benefit  them.  It  may  be  asked,  on  what  authority 
do  these  assertions  of  the  writer  rest?  How  do  we  know  that  young 
men  thus  loiil  have  relaxation  and  amusement  ?  and  that,  unless  those  of 
a  salutary  kind  arc  provided,  they  -will  fall  into  such  as  are  hurtful  ?  I 
answer,  that  these  assertions  rest  on  the  common  observation  and  expe- 
rience of  men.  Hence  the  writer  takes  it  for  granted,  that  those  whom 
he  addresses  will  yield  their  assent  to  his  premises,  and,  consequently,  if 
his  conclusion  is  correctly  drawn,  will  acknowledge  the  vaUdity  of  his 
argument 

In  analysing  the  second  argument,  the  inquir>'  arises,  How  is  it  known, 
that  literary  studies  give  refinement  and  elevation  to  the  mind,  raising  it 
above  mean  and  grovelling  pursuits  ?  Here  the  apy  eal  is  to  consciousness 
Men  who  have  thus  cultivated  their  intellectual  powers,  ai*e  conscious, 
when  they  look  in  upon  the  0|)erations  of  their  own  minds,  that  these 
salutary  influences  liave  been  exerted  upon  them.  The  third  argument 
which  asserts  that  the  love  of  letters  is  favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
Intellectuftl  powers,  rests  principally  upon  «xpericnre  and  observatioa 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  227 

Therft  is  aTso  found  an  illustration,  which  is  of  an  analogical  kind.  It  ig 
where  the  writer  refers  to  the  sports  of  children,  which  familiarize  them 
with  the  elements  of  arithmetic.  This  argument  from  analogy  may  be 
regarded  as  an  appeal  to  the  common  sense  of  the  readers.  The  remain- 
ing argument  rests  in  like  manner  on  appeals  to  experience,  observation, 
common  sense,  and  consciousness,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  analyze  them. 
The  student,  in  the  analysis  which  has  been  made,  has  had  an  opportunity 
of  seeing  some  of  the  grounds  on  which  assertions  and  reasonings  are 
'bunded. 


LXXIII. 


GENERALIZATION  OF  A  SUBJECT. 

Generalization  is  the  act  of  extending  from  particulars  to 
generals,  or  the  act  of  malting  general. 

In  the  treatment  of  all  subjects  there  is  a  tendency  in 
young  writers  to  dwell  too  much  on  isolated  particulars,  with- 
out reference  to  their  general  application.  The  object  of  all 
investigations,  whether  literary,  physical,  or  intellectual,  and 
the  purport  of  all  inquiries,  should  be,  the  establishment  of 
general  principles;  and  every  thought,  which  may  tend  to 
their  elucidation,  and  every  idea  which  may  contribute  to 
their  discovery,  must  be  reckoned  among  the  most  valuable 
of  all  literary  labors.  Hence,  the  efforts  of  the  student  should 
be  directed  towards  the  attainment  of  so  valuable  an  end,  and 
in  the  trainmg  of  his  mind,  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  there 
should  always  be  a  distinct  reference  to  this  consideration. 

In  the  stutxy,  therefore,  which  the  writer  should  always 
employ  in  his  preparation  for  his  work,  it  should  be  his  aim 
to  discover  some  general  principle,  with  which  his  subject  is 
directly  or  remotely  connected,  and  endeavor  to  follow  out 
that  principle  m  all  its  consequences,  —  to  show  how  his 
subject  affects,  or  is  affected,  by  this  general  principle,  and 
how  that  principle  influences  the  interest  of  learning  and 
science,  or  contributes  to  the  well-being  of  society,  and  the 
moral,  physical,  and  intellectual  condition  of  the  world.  Let 
us  suppose,  for  instance,  that  the  teacher  has  assigned  to  a 
class  in  composition,  Truths  as  the  subject  of  a  theme.     The 


228  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

young  writer,  who  is  too  much  in  haste  to  finish  his  task, 
would,  perhaps,  commence  his  exercise  with  some  hackneyed 
observations  on  its  importance,  and  dwell  with  considerable 
prolixity  on  its  influence  on  a  particular  individual. 

Individual  instances,  it  is  true,  may  have  their  influence  in 
establishing  the  importance,  or  illustrating  the  effects  of  a 
general  principle ;  but  to  confine  an  exercise  upon  a  general 
subject  to  individual  instances,  is  to  present  but  narrow  views 
^f  its  importance.  So  far  as  the  example  introduced  into  the 
exercise  of  the  student  may  serve  to  show  the  importance  of 
a  general  principle,  that  example  may  be  valuable,  but  it 
should  by  no  means  form  the  body  of  his  work.  It  may  be 
introduced  into  the  exercise,  as  an  illustration,  or  as  a  sub- 
sidiary portion  of  his  labor,  but  it  should  not  be  dwelt  upon 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  principle  which  it  is  designed  to  illus- 
trate. Thus,  in  the  subject  to  which  reference  has  already 
been  made,  namely,  "  Truth,"  the  well-known  story  of  Petrarch 
may  incidentally  be  mentioned,  to  show  the  dignity  which 
attends  the  strictest  obsv^rvance  of  veracity ;  but,  an  exhibition 
of  the  effects  on  society  in  general  of  the  presence  or  absence 
of  the  subject  itself,  would  be  a  more  useful  and,  of  course, 
a  more  valuable  mode  of  considering  the  subject,  than  any 
attempts  to  show  its  importance  in  individ'jal  cases.  It  should 
be  the  constant  endeavor  of  the  tbAch^.i:  to  lead  ihe  student  to 
the  consideration  of  causes  and  eff*ecis,  their  operations  and 
their  tendencies,  and,  by  the  method  of  reasoning  from  par- 
ticulars to  generals,  to  show  how  general  truths  are  inferred 
from  particular  instances,  and  general  principles  are  estab- 
lished by  the  consideration  of  the  effects  of  particular  causes. 

The  student  who  is  thus  led  to  perceive  the  general  bearings 
of  a  subject,  will  not  take  partial  views,  —  he  will  go  out  into 
the  world,  —  on  board  ship,  —  into  factories  and  other  large 
establishments,  and  view  the  operations  of  general  principles ; 
will  have  the  sphere  of  intellectual  vision  enlarged,  and  in- 
sensibly acquire  a  comprehensiveness  of  mental  perception, 
which  will  release  him  from  the  shackles  of  a  narrow  educa- 
tion, and  enable  him  to  take  in,  as  it  were  at  a  glance,  the 
grand  theatre  of  the  moral  world,  with  all  the  stupendous 
machinery  by  which  the  changes  in  its  scenery  are  eff*ected. 

As  an  exercise  in  generalization,  the  student  may  fill  out 
some  one  or  more  of  the  following  models  from  the  outline 
presented. 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  229 

Exam/ple. 

1.  Time.  Definition  of;  its  divisions;  mode  of  marking  them;  mod« 
of  ascertaining;  meridian;  the  sun;  parallel  between  time  and  space, 
finite  and  infinite. 

2.  The  Feudal  System.  Its  nature  and  origin,  including  a  clear  defi- 
nition of  the  meaning  of  the  term  ;  the  countries  where  it  existed ;  the 
relations  which  it  caused  among  the  inhabitants  of  a  feudal  country ;  its 
efi\3cts  upon  the  morals  and  the  happiness  of  the  respective  nations  where 
it  existed ;  the  virtues  and  vices  which  it  cncom-aged  and  engendered,  and 
a  consideration  of  the  causes  of  its  gradual  overthrow. 

3.  The  Grecian  Lawgivers,  Draco,  Solon,  and  Lycurgus.  The  differ 
ent  character  of  their  respective  laws ;  the  efi^ect  which  they  produced  on 
the  people ;  their  duration,  and  the  probable  cause  of  their  alteration  and 
abrogation ;  the  consequences  which  they  produced ;  and  their  compara 
tive  effects  on  the  morals  and  happiness  of  the  people. 

4.  The  Crusades.  What  were  they  ?  their  object ;  the  manner  in  which 
they  originated ;  the  superstitions  to  which  they  gave  rise ;  their  effect  on 
the  religion,  manners,  and  morals  of  the  age ;  the  vices  and  profligacy 
which  they  engendered ;  their  influence  on  the  moral  condition  of  the 
world,  and'  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe ;  the  sacrifices  of  blood  and 
treasure  which  they  occasioned ;  the  benefits  which  they  have  produced. 

5.  Chivalry.  What  was  it  ?  give  a  clear  definition  or  description  of  it ; 
how  it  arose  ;  the  manner  in  which  candidates  were  admitted  to  its  orders ; 
the  most  eminent  of  its  orders ;  the  effects  of  the  institution  on  the  morals 
and  prevalent  habits  of  the  age ;  its  particular  effect  on  the  female  character ; 
the  virtues  and  vices  which  it  Avould  naturally  engender  or  encourage ;  and 
the  good  or  bad  conseqvience  of  its  universal  prevalence  at  the  present  day. 

6.  The  ancient  Sects  of  Philosophy.  Describe  the  various  sects ;  their 
doctrines ;  the  manner  in  which  they  were  taught ;  the  character  of  the 
respective  founders ;  their  influence ;  the  remarkable  individuals  who  have 
embraced  the  principles  of  the  respective  sects ;  and  the  effect  of  their 
writings  and  example  on  mankind,  &c. 

7.  The  Public  Games  of  Greece.  Their  origin ;  the  nature  of  these 
games,  or  in  what  they  consisted ;  the  places  where  they  were  celebrated ; 
the  rewards  bestowed  upon  the  victors ;  the  estimation  in  which  these 
honors  were  held ;  the  effects  of  these  games  upon  the  victors,  and  upon 
the  nation  to  which  they  belonged,  by  encouraging  athletic  exercises  and 
spirit  of  emulation ;  did  the  encouragement  of  physical  exertion  influence 
literary  or  intellectual  effort  for  the  better  or  the  worse  ?  the  probable  effects 
of  the  institution  of  similar  games  at  the  present  day. 

8.  The  Grecian  Oracles.  Wliat  they  were  ;  where  situated ;  by  whom, 
and  on  what  occasions,  were  they  consulted  ;  the  superstitions  which  they 
encouraged ;  their  probable  nature ;  their  effects  upon  the  religious  char- 
acter of  the  people ;  their  duration ;  probable  cause  of  their  falling  into 
disuse ;  the  wisdom  of  Providence  in  concealing  from  mankind  tha 
knowledge  of  future  events ;  fatalism. 

The  following  subjects  are  suggested  for  tie  unaided  effbrl$  of  the  students 
9.  The  Reformation. 
IC.  The  Invention  of  the  Art  of  Printing. 

11.  The  Invention  of  the  Mariner's  Compass. 

12.  The  Telescope. 

20 


1'30  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

LXXIV. 

POETRY  AND  VERSIFICATION. 

Pajtry  may  properly  be  defined  the  language  of  the  im 
agination.  Its  usual  form  is  in  verse,*  and  it  is  sometimes,  and 
indeed  most  generally,  adorned  with  rhyme.  But  true  poetry 
consists  in  the  idea,  not  in  the  harmonious  ai-rangement  of 
words  in  sentences,  nor  in  the  division  of  a  composition  into 
lines  containing  a  certain  succession  of  long  and  short  sylla- 
bles. 

Poetry  t  deals  largely  in  figurative  language,  especially  in  tropes,  met- 
aphors, personifications,  similes,  and  comparisons.  It  is  also  exceedingly 
partial  to  compound  epithets,  and  new  combinations  employed  for  the 
purposes  of  illustration  and  description. 

Versification  is  the  art  of  making  verses.  A  verse  is  a 
line  consisting  of  a  certain  succession  of  long  and  short  sylla- 
bles. A  hemistich  is  a  half  of  a  verse.  A  distich,  or  couplet, 
consists  of  two  verses. 

Metre  J  is  the  measure   by  which  verses   are  composed. 


♦  The  word  verse  is  frequently  incorrectly  used  for  stanza.  A  verse 
consists  of  a  single  line  only.  A  stanza,  sometimes  called  a  stav4,  consists 
of  a  number  of  lines  regularly  adjusted  to  each  other.  The  word  verse  is 
derived  from  the  Latin  language,  and  signifies  a  tunitti-g.  The  propriety 
of  the  name  will  be  seen  in  the  fact,  that  when  we  have  finished  a  line  we 
turn  to  the  other  side  of  the  page  to  commence  another. 

t  There  are  few  words  in  the  English  language,  the  true  signification  of 
which  is  more  frequently  mistaken  than  the  word  Poetry.  It  is  generally 
thought  to  consist  in  the  harmonious  arrangement  of  words  in  sentences, 
and  the  division  of  a  composition  into  lines  containing  a  certain  succession 
of  long  or  short  syllables.  This  is  a  mistaking  of  the  dress  for  the  sub- 
stance wliich  the  dress  should  cover.  True  poetry  consists  in  the  idea 
that  it  may  be  presented  even  in  the  form  of  prose.  It  addresses  itself  U 
tlio  imagination  and  to  the  feelings.  Thus  the  scriptural  adage,  "Love 
vour  enemies,"  although  in  prose,  becomes  highly  poetical,  when  presented 
with  th3  beautiful  illustration  of  Menon :  "Like  the  sandal  tree  which 
iheds  a  perfume  on  the  nxe  which  fells  it,  we  should  love  our  enemies." 
This  distinction  between  the  idea  and  the  dress  which  it  assumes,  must  be 
carefully  noticed  by  all  who  aspire  to  poetical  fame. 

Torhaps  there  is' in  no  language  a  more  beautiful  exhibition  of  poetica? 
beauties  in  the  form  of  prose,  than  in  the  beautiful  tale  called  "  The  Epi 
lurean,"  by  Thomas  Moore,  Esq. 

I  It  may  perhaps  be  useful,  iltliough  not  properly  connected  with  the 
abject  of  English  versiflcat'on,  to  explain  wbat  is  meant  in  pralmody  bv 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  231 

This  measure  depends  on  the  number  of  the  syllables  and  the 
position  of  the  accents. 

The  divisions  made  in  a  verse  to  regulate  the  proper  suc- 
cession of  long  and  short  syllables  are  called  feet.  They  are 
called  feet,  because  the  voice,  as  it  were,  ste'ps  along  through 
the  verse  in  a  measured  pace.  The  divisions  of  a  verse  into 
feet  depend  entirely  upon  what  is  called  the  quantity  of  the 
syllables,  that  is,  whether  they  are  long  or  shorty  without 
reference  to  the  words. 

Sometimes  a  foot  consists  of  a  single  word,  but  it  also  sometimes  em- 
braces two  or  three  different  words,  and  sometimes  is  composed  of  parts 
of  different  words. 

There  are  eight  kinds  of  feet,  four  of  which  are  feet  of  two  syllables, 
and  four  are  feet  of  three  syllables. 

The  feet  consisting  of  two  syllables  are  the  Trochee,  the  Iambus,  the 
Spondee,  and  the  Pyrrhic. 

<rhe  feet  of  three  syllables  are  the  Dactyle,  the  Amphibrach,  the  Ana- 
oaest,  and  the  Tribrach. 

The  Trochee  consists  of  one  long  and  one  short  syllable ;  as,  hateftil. 

The  Iambus  consists  of  a  short  syllable  and  a  long  one ;  as,  betray. 

The  Spondee  consists  of  two  long  syllables ;  as,  Pale  mom. 

The  Pyrrhic  consists  of  two  short  syllables ;  as,  on  th6  tall  tree. 

The  Dactyle  consists  of  one  long  syllable  and  two  short  ones  ;  as,  holl 
nSss,  thundering. 

The  Amphibrach  consists  of  a  short,  a  long,  and  a  short  syllable ;  as 
delightful,  removal,  cOeval. 

The  Anapaest  consists  of  two  short  syllables  and  one  long  one ;  as, 
c5ntravene.    • 

The  Tribrach  consists  of  three  short  syllables ;  as,  -rituSl  in  the  word 
vpiritwd. 

Of  these  eight  different  kinds  of  feet,  the  Iambus,  the  Trochee,  the 
Anapaest,  and  the  Dactyle  are  most  frequently  used,  and  verses  may  be 
wholly  or  chiefly  composed  of  them.  The  others  may  be  termed  secon- 
ary  feet,  because  their  use  is  to  diversify  the  harmony  of  the  verse. 

English  verses  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  from  the 
feet  of  which  they  are  principally  composed;  namely,  the 
Iambic,  the  Trochaic,  and  the  Anapaestic.  To  these  some 
authors  add  the  Dactylic  as  a  fourth  division ;  but  an  atten- 
tive consideration  of  what  is  called  the  Dactylic  verse  will 


hong,  Common,  Short,  and  Partiadar  metre.  When  each  line  of  a  stanza 
has  eight  syllables,  it  is  called  Long  Metre.  Wlien  the  first  and  third  lines 
have  eio;ht  syllables,  and  he  second  and  fourth  have  six  syllables,  it  is 
called  Common  Metre.  When  the  third  line  has  eight,  and  the  rest  have 
six  syllables,  it  is  called  Short  Metre.  Stanzas  in  Particular  Metre  are  of 
Various  kinds,  and  are  not  subject  to  definite  nil  js 


232  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMl'OSITION. 

shDw  that  it  is  nothing  more  than  the  Anapaestic,  with  the 
omission  of  the  first  two  unaccented  syllables. 

Every  species  of  English  verse  regularly  terminates  with  an  accented 
syllable ;  but  every  species  also  admits  at  the  end  an  additional  nnac 
centcd  syllable,  producing  (if  the  verse  be  in  rhyme)  a  double  rhyme, 
that  is,  a  rhyme  extending  to  two  syllables,  as  the  rhyme  must  altvays  com- 
mence on  the' accented  syllable.  This  additional  syllable  often  changes  th« 
character  of  the  verse  from  grave  to  gay,  from  serious  to  jocose ;  but  it 
does  not  affect  the  measure  or  rhyme  of  the  preceding  part  of  the  verse 
A  verse  thus  lengthened  is  called  hypermeter,  or  over  measure. 

Pure  Iambic  verses  contain  no  other  foot  than  the  Iambus, 
and  are  uniformly  accented  on  the  even  syllables. 
Trochaic  verses  are  accented  on  the  odd  syllables. 

There  are  seven  forms  of  Iambic  verse,  named  from  the  number  of  feet 
which  they  contain.  The  following  line  of  fourteen  syllables  contains  all 
the  seven  forms  of  pure  Iambic  verse. 

1.  Hdw  blithe|whSn  firstjfr5m  farjl  cameltS  wooland  winlthS  maid.* 
2.  When  firstjfrom  farjl  camelto  woojand  win, the  maid. 
3.  From  farll  camelto  wooland  win  the  maid. 
4.  I  came  I  to  woo  j  and  win  |  the  maid. 
5.  To  woo  and  win! the  maid. 
6.  And  win  I  the  maid. 
7.  The  maid. 
The  additional  syllable  en  at  the  end  of  e&oh  line,  to  convert  maid  into 
maiden,  will  furnish* seven  hypermeters,  and  the  line  will  thereby  be  made 
to  exemplify  fourteen  different  forms  of  the  Iambic  verse.f 

Trochaic  verse  is  in  reality  only  defective  Iambic ;  that  is  to  say,  lam 
bic  wanting  the  first  syllable.! 

The  following  line  is  an  example  of  Trochaic  verse : 
Vital  I  spark  of  |  heavenlj^  |  flame.^ 


♦  This  measure  is  sometimes  broken  into  two  lines,  thus : 
How  blithe  when  first  I  came  from  far 
To  woo  and  wm  the  maul. 

t  The  fifth  fonn  of  Iambic  verse,  consisting  of  five  Iambuses,  is  o»]V1  th< 
Ifcroic  measure.    The  follov/ing  lines  exemplify  it: 

H6w  loved,  |  how  vai  |  tied  once  |  Avails  |  thf  6  n6t, 
To  whom  related,  or  by  whom  begot,  &c. 
The  sixth  form  of  Iambic  verse  is  called  the  Alexandrine  measure : 
A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song, 

Which  like  |  &  wotlnd  |  6d  snake  |  di^gs  Its  |  slow  length  |  along. 
t  See  Carey's  English  Prosody,  London  edition  of  1&16.  pp.  25  and  27 
\  This  line,  scanned  as  Iambic,  has  a  broken  foot  at  the  De^iaume  • 

VI I  tai  spark  |  of  heaven  I  Iv  fiame. 
Soanned  as  Trochaic,  it  has  the  broken  foot  at  th«  ena. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  2b6 

Anapaestic  verse  properly  consists  of  anapaests  alone ;  as, 

At  th6  close  |  of  th6  day  |  when  the  ham  |  I6t  is  still. 

The  first  foot,  however,  in  all  the  different  forms  of  Anapaestic  metre, 
may  be  a  foot  of  two  syllables,  provided  that  the  latter  syllable  of  th« 
foot  be  accented.  Such  are  the  Iambus  and  the  Spondee.  But  the 
Pyrrhic  and  the  Trochee,  which  have  not  the  second  syllable  accented, 
are  on  that  account  inadmissible.* 

Diiferent  kinds  of  feet  frequently  occur  in  all  the  different 
kinds  of  verse.  But  it  is  not  always  that  they  can  be  exactly 
discriminated.  Concerning  the  Trochee,  the  Spondee,  and 
the  Pyrrhic,  there  can  be  little  doubt ;  but  with  respect  to  the 
Dactyle,  the  Anapaest,  and  the  Tribrach,  the  case  is  different ; 


Vital  I  spark  of  |  heavenly  |  flame. 
In  like  manner,  if  we  cut  off  the  first  syllable  from  any  form  of  the  lam 
bic,  we  shall  find  that  it  may  be  scanned  both  ways,  with  the  deficiency  of 
a  semi  foot  at  the  beginning  of  the  end,  according  as  we  scan  it  in  Iambuses 
or  Trochees. 

Thus,  the  line  given  as  an  exemplification  of  the  Iambic  metre,  on  the 
preceding  page,  if  deprived  in  each  form  of  its  first  syllable,  becomes  Tro 
chaic : 

how)  Blithe  when  |  first  from  }  far  1 1  came  to    woo  and    win  the    maid. 

when)  First  from  |  far  I    came  to    woo  and    win  the    maid. 

from)  Far  I  |  came  to    woo  and    win  the    maid 

I)  Came  to    woo  and    win  the    maid. 

to)  Woo  and    win  the    maid. 

and)  Win  the    maid. 

And  thus  we  see,  that  what  we  call  Trochaics  regularly  terminate  in  an 

accented  syllable,  as  is  the  case  in  every  other  fox'm  of  English  metre ; 

though,  Uke  every  other  form,  they  also  admit  an  additional  tmaccented 

syllable  at  the  end,  producing  a  double  rhyme  ;  so  that  by  changing  maid 

for  maiden  in  each  of  the  preceding  lines,  (as  directed  under  Iambic  verse,'^ 

we  shall  have  twelve  forms  of  Trochaic  verse.    But  it  may  be  remarked. 

that  of  the  six  regular  forms  of  Trochaic  verse,  and  the  six  hypermeter 

related  to  them,  the  first  three  in  each  class  are  very  seldom  used. 

*  The  following  stanza  is  given  by  some  authorities  as  an  instance  of 
Dactylic  verse : 

Holy  and  |  pure  are  the  |  pleasures  of  ]  piety, 
Drawn  from  the  |  fountain  of  |  mercy  and  |  love ; 
Endless,  ex  |  haiistless,  ex  |  empt  from  sa  |  tiety, 
Elsing  iin  |  earthly  and  |  soaring  a  |  bove. 
An  attentive  consideration  of  these  lines  will  show  that  they  are  legiti 
mate  Anapaestic  lines  with  the  omission  of  the  first  two  unaccented  sylla 
bles  in  each  line.     When  scanned  as  Dactylic  measure,  the  two  unaccented 
syllables  are  omitted  at  the  end  of  the  even  lines.     By  supplying  the  two 
unaccented  syllables  at  the  beginning  of  each  line,  they  may  thus  be  shown 
to  be  Anapajstic : 

Oh  how  ho  I  ly  and  pure  |  are  the  pleas  |  iires  of  pi  |  ety 
As  they're  drawn  |  from  the  foun  |  tain  of  mer  |  cy  and  love,  &c. 
And  thus  it  appears,  that  whe-  scanned  as  Anapaestic  they  want  the  ao 
eented  syllable  at  the  end  of  the  odd  lines. 
20* 


•234  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

because,  by  a  poetic  license,  the  writer  may  make  the  foot  it 
question  a  Trochee,  a  Spondee,  or  a  Pyrrhic.  * 

It  remains  to  be  observed,  that  if  from  any  verse  of  ordinary  construc- 
tion, we  remove  any  number  of  syllables,  and  substitute  an  equal  number 
of  others,  exactly  coiresponding  with  them  in  accent,  the  metre  will  still 
be  perfect,  although  the  sense  may  be  altered.    Thus, 

Pilidms'  tvrdth,  tO  Greece  the  direful  spring 
Cy  woes  Unnumba'red,  heavenly  goddess,  sing. 
Altered  thus : 

Th^  Frenchmdnh  arts,  td  Spain  the  direful  spring 
Of  feuds  and  carnage,  heavenly  goddess,  sing. 


Altered  thus : 


Hark  !  the  nwnbers,  soft  and  clear. 
Gently  steal  upon  the  ear. 

Hark !  the  thunders,  loud  and  clear, 
Rudely  burst  upon  the  ear. 


The  Caesura  (which  word  means  a  division)  is  the  separa 
tion,  or  pause,  which  is  made  in  the  body  of  a  verse  in  utter- 
ance ;  dividing  the  line,  as  it  were,  into  two  members. 

In  different  species  of  verse,  and  in  different  verses  of  the  same  species, 
this  pause  occurs  in  different  parts  of  the  verse ;  and  serves  to  give  variety 
to  the  line.  Its  position  is,  for  the  most  part,  easily  ascertained,  by  the 
grammatical  construction  and  the  punctuation,  which  naturally  indicate 
the  place  where  the  sense  cither  requires  or  admits  a  pause. 

The  most  advantageous  position  for  the  Caesura  is  generally  after  the 
fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth  syllable ;  although  it  occasionally  takes  place  after 
the  third  or  the  seventh.  . 

In  the  following  lines  the  figures  denote  the  number  of  the  syllable 
where  the  ciesura  belongs. 

The  Saviour  comes  4 1|  by  ancient  bards  foretold. 
From  storms  a  shelter  5  ||  and  from  heat  a  shade. 
Exalt  thy  towering  head  6 1|  and  lift  thy  eyes. 
Exploring  .3 II  till  they  find  their  native  deep. 
Witliin  that  mystic  circle  7  ||  safely  seek. 

Sometimes,  though  rarely,  the  c«snra  occurs  after  the  second  or  tn« 
eighth  syllabic :  as, 

Happy  2 II  witliout  the  privilege  of  will. 
In  different  individuals  8  ||  we  find. 

Sometimes  the  line  requires  or  admits  two  pauses  or  csesoras.  Thii 
double  pause  is  by  some  ^vriters  called  the  cajsura  and  the  dcmi-ceesura  • 

M, 

CtKsar,  2  ||  the  world's  great  master,  7 1|  and  his  own. 
And  goodness  3 1|  like  the  sun  6 1|  enlightens  all. 

♦  See  Carey's  English  Prosody,  p.  49. 


AI1>S    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  236 

There  are  few  more  melodious  instances  of  these  pauses  to  oe  found- 
Lhan  in  the  following  lines  from  one  of  the  most  polished  poets  which  th« 
English  language  has  produced. 

Warms  ||  in  the  sun,  4  ||  refreshes  6  ||  in  the  breeze, 
Glows  II  in  the  stars,  ||  and  blossoms  ||  in  the  trees ; 
Lives  II  through  all  life,  ||  extends  ||  through  all  extent, 
Spreads  ||  undivided,  operates  ||  unspent. 

It  remains  to  be  observed,  that  in  poetry,  as  well  as  in 
prose,  but  more  especially  in  poetry,  it  is  esteemed  a  great 
beauty  when  the  sound  of  the  verse,  or  of  the  feet  of  which  it 
is  composed,  corresponds  with  the  signification.  Instances  of 
this  kind  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Onomatopoeia.  A 
simUar  beauty  appears  in  the  following  lines : 

"  On  the  ear 
Drops  the  light  drip  of  the  suspended  oar." 

«  The  string  let  fly 
Twanged  short  and  sharp,  like  the  shrill  swallow's  cry." 

SPECIMENS  OE  DIFEERENT  KINDS  OE  ENGLISH  VERSE. 

Iambic  of  the  shortest  form,  consisting  of  an  Iambus  with  an  additional 
syllable ;  thus  coinciding  with  the  amphidrach. 

Disdaining.  Consenting. 

Complaining.  Repenting. 

This  form  may  be  found  in  stanzas  of  other  measure,  but  is  not  used 
ttlone. 

Second  form  of  the  Iambic,  consisting  of  two  Ic^^nhmes. 

"With  ravished  ears 
The  monarch  hears. 
Assumes  the  god, 
Affects  to  nod. 

flypermeter  of  the  same  kind. 

Upon  a  mountain, 
Beneath  a  fountain. 

Three  Iambuses,  with  hypemieter  of  the  same  kind. 

'T  was  when  the  seas  were  roaring 
With  hollow  blasts  of  wind, 
A  damsel  lay  deploring, 
All  on  a  rock  reclined. 


f'mir  Iambuses. 


And  may  at  last  my  weary  age 
Find  out  the  peaceful  hermitage. 


230  AID9    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Five  lambtises,  or  the  Heroic  measure. 

Be  wise  to-day,  't  is  madness  to  defer 

How  loved,  how  valued  once,  avails  thee  not. 

To  whom  related,  or  by  whom  begot : 

A  heap  of  dust  alone  remains  of  thee, 

'T  is  all  thou  art,  and  all  the  proud  shall  be. 

Six  Iambuses^  or  the  Alexandrine  measure 

For  thou  art  but  of  dust ;  be  humble  and  be  wise. 

( The  latter  of  the  ttoo  following  is  an  Alexandrine.) 

A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song, 

That,  like  a  wounded  snake,  drags  its  slow  length  along. 

Seven  Iambuses. 

The  melancholy  days  have  come,  the  saddest  of  the  year, 
Of  wailing  winds,  and  naked  woods,  and  meadows  brown  and  sere. 
The  robin  and  the  wren  have  flown,  and  from  the  shrub  the  jay. 
And  from  the  wood  top  caws  *  the  crow,  through  all  the  gloomy  d»f  . 

This  measure  is  sometimes  broken  into  two  lines,  thus : 

"When  all  thy  mercies,  O  my  God  1 
My  rising  soul  surveys. 
Transported  with  the  view,  I  'm  lost 
In  wonder,  love,  and  praise. 

Trochaic  verse  of  one  Trochee  and  a  long  syllabU. 

Tumult  cease 
Sink  to  peace. 
See  him  stride, 
J    Valleys  wide, 
Over  woods. 
Over  floods. 


Two  Trochees. 


Rich  the  treasure, 
Sweet  the  pleasure. 
Soft  denials 
Are  but  trials. 


*  This  alteration  in  a  line  of  one  of  the  sweetest  pieces  of  poetry  e^ct 
written  in  any  language,  was  sngjjested  by  the  lamented  Mr.  Bailey,  of  the 
High  School  for  Girls,  in  this  city.  In  compiling  "  The  Young  Ladies* 
Class  Book,"  ho  expressed  a  wish  to  the  author  to  take  this  liberty,  but  he 
deemed  it  unwarrantable.  The  reading  is  adopted  here  as  a  beautiful  ex- 
emplification of  what  is  stated  under  Onomatopoeia ;  and,  indeed,  when  we 
consider  how  easily  the  printer  might  mistake  in  manuscript  a  ta  for 
a  double  /,  it  would  not  bo  surprising  if  it  should  hereafter  appear  that  our 
gited  countryman  originally  wrote  it  caws,  and  not  calls,  as  it  is  generally 
written 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  237 

Fwo  Irochees^  with  an  additional  long  syllable. 
In  the  days  of  old 
Fables  plainly  told. 
Hiree  Trochees. 

Go  where  glory  waits  thee. 

rhree  Trochees,  with  an  additional  sxjllable. 

Eestless  mortals  toil  for  nought  ;• 
Bliss  in  vain  from  earth  is  sought. 

Four  Trochees. 

Bound  us  wars  the  tempest  louder. 

With  an  additional  syllaMe.  ** 

Idle  after  dinner  in  his  chair. 
Five  Trochees. 

AU  that  walk  on  foot  or  ride  in  chariots. 
Six  Trochees. 

On  a  mountain,  stretched  beneath  a  hoary  willow. 
AnapcEstic  verse  consisting  of  one  Anapaest 
But  in  vain 
They  complain.  * 
Tvjc  Anapaests. 

But  his  courage  'gan  fail, 
For  no  arts  could  avail. 

With  an  additional  syllable. 

But  his  courage  'gan  fail  him, 
For  no  arts  could  avail  him. 
Three  Anapaests. 

I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey. 
My  right  there  is  none  to  dispute ; 
From  the  centre  all  round  to  the  sea, 
I  am  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute. 
Four  Anapaests. 

At  the  close  of  the  day  wnen  the  hamlet  is  still. 
Hypermeter  of  four  Anapaests. 

On  the  warm  cheek  of  youth,  smiles  and  roses  are  blending. 

TERSBS    IN  WHICH    THE    SECONDARY   FEET    ARE  ADMITTED    TO    GIVE 
VARIETY   TO  THE  MELODY. 

The  student  will  observe,  by  the  marks  on  the  vowels,  what  the  secondary  feel 
vire,  which  are  introduced  in  the  following  lines ;  the  first  foot  is  a  spondee 

There  soon  the  sufferer  sinks  to  rest. 

There  too  was  he,  who  nobly  stemmed  the  tide. 

That  breast  the  seat  of  sentim6nt  refined. 

Hail,  long  lost  Peace  !  hail,  dove-eyed  maid  divine 

*  This  measure  is  ambiguous,  for  by  accenting  the  first  and  third  sylla 
ties  we  may  make  it  Troehaie. 


238  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH      COMPOSITION. 

A  Pjftrhic  occurs  in  the  following. 

If  aught  be  welcOrae  t6  our  sylvan  shed, 
Be  It  the  the  trav  lier  wh6  has  lost  his  way. 
I  sought  the  beauties  5f  the  painted  vale, 
The  flowers  I  /)ften  wat($red  with  my  tears. 
And  loaded  with  my  sighs  the  passing  gale 

3^ondeei  and  Pyrrhics  toith  Iambuses. 

Go  pious  oflfsprTng  and  restrain  those  tears ; 
I  f.y  to  regions  6f  eternal  bliss. 
Heaven  In  your  favor  hears  my-  d3dng  pmyers ; 
Take  my  last  blessing  In  this  clay  cold  kiss. 

A  Dactyl  with  Iambuses. 

Murmtlring,  and  with  him  fled  the  shades  of  night 

^mphibrachs  mixed  with  Iambuses. 

0'6r  many  a  frozen,  many  a  fi^ry  ftlp. 

A  Spondee  and  a  Tribrach^  with  Iambuses. 

Innumerable  before  th'  Almighty  throne. 

It  will  thus  be  perceived,  that  by  the  mixture  of  difl^erent  kinds  of  (eei, 
all  that  variety  is  produced,  which  renders  poetry  agreeable  to  the  ear. 
To  constitute  verse,  it  is  not  sufficient  that  a  number  of  jarring  syllables 
ghould  be  ranged  in  uncouth  lines,  with  rhyme  at  the  end.  Order,  regu- 
larity, symmetry,  and  harmony  are  requisite,  while  the  taste  and  judgment 
of  the  poet  are  displayed  by  the  proper  mixttire  of  accented  and  unac 
cented  syllables  to  form  an  harmonious  line.* 

The  student,  having  now  been  made  acquainted  with  the 
different  kinds  of  verse,  may  be  required  to  compose  verses 
himself  in  all  the  different  kinds  of  measure.  As  a  first  exer- 
cise in  versification,  he  may  be  permitted  to  write  words  in 
versos  without  regard  to  their  signijicatiorij  making  what  may 
be  called  nonsense  verses,  as  in  the  following 

Example. 

Five  fool  Iambus  or  Heroic  Vam. 
Thus  man  attempts  some  nobler  end  to  scan. 
Bestrides  the  flood  in  horror  at  the  plan. 

♦  The  harmony  of  a  verse  mar  sometimes  be  utterly  destroyed  by  the 
misplacing  of  a  single  monosyllable  ;  thus, 

*•  Thrioe  is  he  armed  that  hath  his  quarrel  just, 
And  ho  but  naked,  though  locked  up  in  steel, 
Whoso  conscience  is  with  injustice  corrupted."         *^ 
In  this  extract,  the  measure  of  the  third  line  is  utterly  destroyed  by  the 
misplacing  of  the  word  is.    It  should  be, 

"  Whose  consoienoe  with  injustice  is  corrupted." 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION  239 

Trochaic. 
Boiling  in  the  troubled  sea. 
Full  of  mirthful  hope  to  be. 

Anapmstic. 
From  the  brow  of  the  hill  see  the  hermit  appear, 
And  with  joy  in  his  face  mark  the  waters  so  clear,  &c 

Exercises. 

Having  previously  attempted  to  form  verses  in  all  the  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  measure  that  have  been  described,  with  words 
without  reference  to  sense,  the  student  may  arrange  the  fol- 
lowing lines  in  regular  order.  The  lines  themselves  contain 
all  the  words  necessary  both  for  the  harmonious  construction 
and  the  expression  of  the  sense.  The  order  of  them  is,  how 
ever,  disturbed,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following 

Example, 

Adieu  to  the  woodlands,  where,  gay  and  sportive, 
The  cattle  play  so  frolicsome,  light  bounding. 
Adieu  to  the  woodlands  where  I  have  roved  oft, 
And,  with  the  friend  that  I  loved,  conversed  so  sweetly 

,  Same  toords  properly  arranged. 

Adieu  to  the  woodlands,  where,  sportive  and  gay, 
The  cattle  light  bounding  so  frolicsome  play. 
Adieu  to  the  woodlands  where  oft  I  have  roved, 
And  sweetly  conversed  with  the  friend  I  have  loved. 

Exercises, 

Verses  to  he  arranged  by  the  Student  in  Anapaestic  *  lines  of  four  JeeL 

Content  and  joy  are  now  fled  from  our  dwellings. 
And,  instead,  disease  and  want  are  our  inmates. 

*  Dr.  Carey,  in  his  English  Prosody,  says,  "  If,  like  Tertasus  of  old,  I  had 
to  awake  dormant  valor  with  the  voice  of  song,  I  would  in  preference  te 
every  other  form  of  English  metre,  choose  the  Anapaestic,  of  four  feet  in 
couplets,  which,  if  well  written,  in  real  anapassts,  unincumbered  with  an 
undue  weight  of  heavy  syllables,  and  judiciously  aided  by  appropriate  mu- 
sic, could  hardly  fail  to  rnartialize  even  shivering  cowards,  and  warm  them 
into  heroes ;  the  brisk,  animating  march  of  the  verse  having  the  same  effect 
on  the  soul,  as  the  body  experiences  from  the  quick,  lively  step,  which,  bj 
accelerating  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  at  once  warms  and  dilates  the 
heart,  and  renders  the  warrior  more  prompt  to  deeds  of  prowess."  If  any 
one  would  test  the  justness  of  Dr.  Carey's  opinion,  as  thus  expressed,  hia 
doubts  will  be  resolved  by  the  perusal  of  Campbell's  beautiful  piece,  ekiti 
fclsd  "  Lochiel's  Warniui-." 


210  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMP08I1IOH. 

Now  chivalry  is  dead,  and  Gallia  ruined, 
And  the  glory  of  Europe  is  fled  for  evei. 

'T  is  woman,  whose  charms  impart  every  rapture, 
And  to  the  pulse  of  the  heart  add  a  soft  spring. 
Her  sway  is  so  supreme,  the  miser  himself 
Resigns  her  his  key,  and  to  love  grows  a  convert 
Sorrow  lifts  up  his  head  at  the  sound  of  her  voice. 
And,  from  his  shed,  Poverty  well  pleased  listens. 
Even  age,  hobbling  along,  in  an  ecstasy 
Beats  time  to  the  tune  of  her  song  with  her  crutch. 

How  sweet  is  the  thought  of  to-morrow  to  the  heart. 
When  Hope's  fairy  pictures  display  bright  colors, 
How  sweet  when  we  can  borrow  from  futurity 
A  balm  for  the  griefs  that  to-day  afflict  us. 

To  he  made  into  Iambic  verses  unth  four  feet. 

And  while  I  feel  thy  gracious  gifts 
My  song  shall  reveal  all  thy  praise. 

The  search  shall  teach  thee  to  prize  life. 
And  make  thee  good,  wise,  and  grateful. 

"With  ease  you  wear  a  thousand  shapes, 
And  still  you  please  in  every  shape. 

Neither  wealth  I  pursue,  nor  power, 
Nor  hold  in  view  forbidden  joys. 

The  prudent  nymph,  whose  cheeks  discloser 
The  blushing  rose  and  the  lily, 
"Will  screen  her  charms  from  public  view, 
And  rarely  be  seen  in  the  crowd. 

Iambic  verses  of  Jive  feet^  or  the  Heroic  *  measure. 
As  Orpheus  tunes  his  song  in  Thracian  wilds, 
The  raptured  beasts  throng  around  him  in  crowdi. 

Seek  not  thou  to  find,  with  vain  endeavor, 
Of  Almighty  mind  the  secret  counsels ; 
The  great  decree  lies  involved  in  darkness ; 
Nor  can  the  depths  of  fate  by  thee  be  pierced. 

0  could  some  poet  rise,  bold  in  wisdom, 
And  unfold  half  thy  beauties  to  the  world, 
Roving  on  fancy's  wing,  impart  thv  fire. 
And  feel  thy  genius  beaming  on  his  heart,  — 

1  'd  wish  humbly,  though  the  wish  would  be  vain, 
That  on  mo  some  smadl  portion  might  alight. 


»  This  is  the  principal  metre  of  our  lanjruajre,  and  it  is  happily  adapta-! 
to  every  kind  of  subject,  from  the  most  exalted  to  the  most  humble  ana  fit- 
miliar,  and  it  mar  be  used  w:th  or  without  rhyme. 


A.IDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  241 

Trochaic  verses. 
Where  spreads  the  rising  forest, 
For  the  lordly  dome  shelter, 
To  their  airy  beds  high  built, 
See  returning  home  the  rooks. 

Now  battle  glows  with  fury 
In  torrents  flows  hostile  blood. 

Here  you  '11  find  mental  pleasures, 
Pleasures  that  the  mind  adorn. 
The  joys  of  sense  are  transient,  , 

They  dispense  no  solid  bliss. 

The  shepherd  dines  by  the  brook 
Heat  the  fierce  meridian  from 
By  the  branching  pines  sheltered 
O'er  his  grassy  seat  pendent. 

But  from  stream,  dell,  or  mountain 
Springs  not  a  fluttering  zephyr, 
Lest  tihe  noontide  beam,  fearful 
His  silken,  his  soft  wings  scorch. 

RHYME. 

Rhyme  is  a  similarity,  or  agreement,  in  the  sound  of  final 
syllables. 

Verse  without  rhyme  is  called  hlanh  verse,* 

It  is  a  general  rul^  in  poetry,  with  regard  to  rhymes,  that 
they  should  begin  on  the  accented  syllable. 

In  the  forming  of  verses  with  rhyme,  it  is  a  good  rule  to 
let  the  weaker  line  stand  first.f 


*  Rhyme  is  by  no  means  to  be  considered  as  an  essential  constituent  in 
English  poetry.  Much  poetry  has  been  written,  and  that,  too,  of  the 
choicest  description,  in  which  rhyme  has  no  part.  The  poetry  of  Milton, 
Shakspeare,  Thomson,  Young,  and  a  host  of  others,  whose  writings  have 
contributed  so  much  to  the  literature  of  the  language,  seldom  admits  this 
"  meretricious  "  ornament,  as  it  has  been  called.  But  it  has  been  said,  that, 
•  although,  in  the  five  feet  Iambic  measure,  the  measured  dignity  of  the  verse 
supplies  the  place  of  rhyme,  in  tne  other  forms  of  English  versification  it  is 
absolutely  essential.  Whoever  will  be  at  the  pains  to  convince  himself  that 
this  is  an  erroneous  opinion,  may  easily  do  so  by  the  perusal  of  the  works 
of  Dr.  Southey,  especially,  his  "  Thalaba,  or  the  Destroyer." 

t  The  student,  in  his  nrst  attempts  at  versification,  should  be  cautioned 
against  the  injudicious  use  oi  expletives.  An  expletive  is  a  word  introduced 
merely  to  fill  out  the  line,  while  it  not  only  contributes  nothing  to  the  sense. 
but  absolutely  weakens  it.  Pope,  in  his  Essay  on  Criticism,  exemplifies, 
while  he  condemns  this  fault. 

"  While  expletives  their  feeble  aid  do  join, 
And  ten  low  words  oft  creep  iJ  one  dull  lino." 
21 


242  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Rhymes  may  occur  in  consecutive,  or  alternate  lines,  or  in 
*inj  other  regular  order,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  writer. 

Rhymes  arc  of  two  kinds,  perfect  rhymes  and  allowable 
rhymes.  The  difference  between  the  two  kinds  will  readily 
be  seen  by  the  following  Vocabulary,  taken  from  Walker's 
"  Rhyming  Dictionary."  * 

*  On  tho  same  principle  of  association,  on  which  some  of  the  earlier  les- 
sons in  this  volume  are  founded,  it  is  thought  that  this  vwcabulary  will  aid 
the  student,  not  only  in  finding  a  rhyme,  but  likewise  in  suggesting  ideas. 
Dr.  Carey,  in  the  Preface  to  his  " English  Prosody,"  says:  "It  is  not  with 
the  view  of  making  poets  and  poetesses  that  I  send  forth  this  publication. 
That  must  be  the  work  of  nature  alone :  it  is  not  in  my  power  to  create 
them ;  and  if  it  were,  I  might  be  accused  of  doing  more  harm  than  good,  in 
tempting  many  of  my  young  readers  to  quit  a  gainful  calUng  for  the  un 
gainful  trade.  My  aims  are  more  humble  ;  —  1.  To  teach  the  learner  to  read 
poetry  with  propriety  and  grace  ;  2.  To  improve  and  polish  his  style  for 
prose  composition."  And,  further  on,  he  adds;  "Indeed,  every  person, 
w-hether  poet  or  not,  who  has  received  any  tolerable  education,  and  pretends 
to  write  accent  prose,  ought  likewise  to  be  qualified  for  the  occasional  pro- 
duction of  a  few  verses,  smooth,  at  least,  and  metrically  correct,  whatever 
may  be  their  merit  or  demerit  in  other  respects.  That  the  practice  of  versi 
fication  materially  improves  the  style  for  prose  composition,  there  cannot  be 
a  doubt.  The  ear  which  is  acutely  sensible  to  the  narmonies  of  verse,  will 
naturally  revolt  against  inharmonious  harshness  in  prose ;  and  the  pains 
bestowed  in  searching  for  a  variety  of  words  of  different  lengths,  quantities, 
and  terminations y  to  suit  the  exigencies  of  the  metre,  — 

*  the  shifts  and  turns, 
Th'  expedients  and  inventions  multiform. 
To  which  the  mind  resorts  in  chase  of  terms, 
T'  arrest  the  fleeting  images,  that  fill 
The  mirror  of  the  mind.' 

will  copiously  enlarge  tho  writer's  stock  of  expressions,  —  will  enable  hira 
to  array  his  thoughts  in  a  more  elegant  and  attractive  garb,  and  to  vary 
that  garb  at  pleasure,  by  the  rcadjr  aid  of  a  diversified  phraseology.  It  will. 
at  the  same  time,  produce  a  more  important  and  beautiful  effect,  —  it  will 
enrich  tho  intellectual  store  of  thought ;  for,  while  in  search  for  an  epithet^ 
for  an  example,  or  a  periphmse,  ho  is  obliged  to  view  tho  subject  in  all  its 
possible  bearings  and  relations,  that  he  may  choose  such  particular  word  or 
phrase,  as  shall  exhibit  it  in  the  most  advantageous  light.  And  what  study 
more  effectual  to  call  into  action  the  powers  of  tho  mind,  to  exercise  the 
'udgmcnt,  to  whet  the  sagacity,  aiid  pive  birth  to  a  variety  ofideas^  which 
miglit  otherwise  have  lain  for  ever  dormant?  For  these  weighty  consid 
erations,  tho  practice  of  verso-making  has  been  recommendea  by  Locke, 
Cliesicrfield,  Franklin,  &c.,  &c." 

Tho  tcachor  will  find  tho  following  exercise,  called  bv  the  French  **  Bouts 
Rimes,^^  interesting  to  tho  youn^  student,  and,  like  all  other  inducements 
to  thought,  auxiliiu-y  to  the  subject  of  composition. 

"  One  of  a  party  writes  down  the  rhvming  words  for  a  short  poem ;  which 
another  undertakes  to  complete,  by  filling  up  the  several  verses,  on  a  sub- 
ject either  chosen  at  pleasure,  or  prescribed,  as  the  case  may  be.  The 
following  stanza,  in  which  the  words  in  italic  are  the  rhyming  words  pr» 
Tiously  assigned,  will  be  sufficiently  explanatory  of  the  practice : 


•  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  245 

LXXV. 

VOCABULARY  OF  RHYMES. 

Directions  for  finding  Rhymes, 

1.  In  looking  for  a  word  in  the  following  vocabulary,  consider  the  five 
vowels,  A^  E,  /,  O,  U,  and  begin  at  the  vowel  that  precedes  the  last  con- 
sonant of  the  word ;  for  example,  to  find  persuade^  and  the  words  that 
rhyme  to  it,  D  is  the  last  consonant,  A  the  vowel  that  precedes  it ;  look 
for  ADE,  and  you  will  find  made^  fade,  invade,  and  all  the  other  words  of 
that  rhyme. 


'To  Hope. 

Down,  down,  vain  hope,  to  me  no  Tnore 

Can  spring  return,  with  blossoms  crowned^ 

Nor  Summer  ripen  Autumn's  store., 

Which  now  lies  withering  on  the  ground. 

Fade,  fade,  vain  Hope  !  all  else  has faded; 

Why  should  I  dream  and  cherish  thee  ? 

Since  dark  Despair,  that  sun  has  shaded, 

Which  once  gave  light  and  joy  to  me. 

Go,  flatterer,  go !  thy  hour  is  past ; 

Thy  promised  pleasures  all  are  vain : 

I  know  they  are  not  meant  to  last 

And  ne'er  will  trust  to  thee  again.'' 

Another  sort  of  poetical  amusement  has  the  name  of  Echo  Verses.  In 
these  the  repetition  of  the  last  word  or  syllable  of  a  verse  gives  an  answer 
to  a  question,  or  explains-  some  subject,  which  that  verse  contains.  The 
following  echo  verses  allude  to  the  Soundheads  in  the  reign  of  Charles  tk« 
First. 

Now,  Echo,  on  what 's  religion  grounded  ? 

Roundhead. 
Who  's  its  professor  most  considerable  ? 

Rabble. 
How  do  these  prove  themselves  to  be  the  godly  ? 


But  they  in  life  are  known  to  be  the  holy. 

Olie! 
Do  they  not  learning  from  their  doctrine  sever  ? 

Ever! 
Yet  they  pretend,  that  they  do  edify ; 

Ofie! 
What  church  have  they,  and  what  pulpits  ? 

jPttts. 
Are  crosses,  images,  and  ornaments  their  scandal  ? 

M! 
How  do  tfcey  stand  affected  to  the  government  civil  ? 

Evil. 


244  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.- 

2.  In  like  manner,  if  a  word  end  in  two  or  more  consonants,  begin  al 
the  vowel  that  immediately  precedes  the  first  of  them ;  for  example,  land, 
N  is  first  of  the  final  consonants,  A  the  vowel  that  precedes  it ;  see  AND, 
and  you  will  find  band,  stand,  command,  &c. 

3.  Bat  if  a  diphthong,  that  is  to  say,  two  or  more  vowels  together, 
precedes  the  last  consonant  or  consonants  of  a  word,  begin  at  the  first  of 
these  two  vowels ;  thus,  to  find  the  rhymes  to  disdain,  look  not  for  IN 
but  for  AIN,  and  you  will  find  brain,  chain,  gain,  &c. 

4.  To  find  a  word  that  ends  in  a  diphthong  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
ocgin  only  at  the  first  vowel  of  the  diphthong ;  for  example,  to  find  the 
rhymes  to  subdue,  look  for  UE,  and  you  will  find  clue,  due,  ensue,  &c 

5.  All  the  words  :hat  end  in  a  single  vowel,  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
are  found  by  looking  for  that  vowel  only,  except  always  the  words  that 
end  in  mute  E,  which  are  constantly  found  by  the  same  method  that  has 
Deen  already  prescribed  for  finding  the  rhymes  to  persuade,  whose  final 
E  is  silent,  and  serves  only  to  lengthen  the  sound  of  the  A  in  the  last 
syllable 

AB. 
Bab,  cab,  dab,  mab,  nab,  Wab,  crab,  drab,  scab  stab.    Allowable  rhymes 
oabe,  astrolabe,  &c.    See  Direction  3. 

ACE. 

Ace,  dace,  pace,  face,  lace,  mace,  race,  brace,  chace,  grace,  place,  space, 

trace,  apace,  deface,  efface,  disgrace,  displace,  misplace,  embrace,  grimace, 

Interlace,  retrace,  populace,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  base,  case,  abase,  debase, 

Ac.    AUaioalle  rhyrnes,  grass,  glass,  &c.,  peace,  cease,  &c.,  dress,  less,  &c 

ACH. 
Attach,  detach,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  batch,  match,  &c.  AUotoabU  rhymes. 
fetch,  wretch,  &c.    See  Direction  3. 

ACK. 
Back,  cack,  hack,  jack,  lack,  pack,  quack,  tack,  sack,  rack,  black,  clack, 
crack,  knack,  slack,  snack,  stack,  track,  wrack,  attack,  zodiac,  demoniac 
riymposiac,  almanac.    AUotaable  rhymes,  b{dke,  take,  &c.,  neck,  speck,  &c. 

ACT. 
Act,  fact,  pact,  tract,  attract,  abstract,  extract,  compact,  contract,  de 
tract,  distract,  exact,  protract,  enact,  infract,  subtract,  transact,  cataract, 
with  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ack,  as  backed,  hacked,  &c. 
Allowable  rhymes,  tlie  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ake,  as  baked, 
caked,  &c.     See  Direction  3. 

But  to  the  King  they  say  they  are  most  loyal. 

Im  alL 
Then  God  keep  King  and  state  from  these  same  men. 

It  remains  to  bo  observed:  1.  That  the  two  corresponding  syllables  of  a 
rhyme  must  not  only  becin  their  consonance  with  the  accented  vowel,  but 
must  preserve  it  througli  the  remaining  letters;  thus,  <«a:<  and  vext,song 
and  long  echo  with  one  another  respectivelv,  in  the  sounds  esct  and  ong. 

2.  The  sounds,  and  not  the  letters,  cons'titute  the  rhyme.  Thus,  muff 
and  rough,  blew  and  grew,  though  different  to  the  eye,  form  an  unobjec- 
tionnblo  rhyme ;  but  bough  and  tough,  though  similar  to  the  eye,  have  no 
similarity  in  sound. 

3.  The  letter  or  letters  in  the  syllable  which  precede  the  accented  vowel, 
must  be  different  in  form  and  sound,  otherwise  the  consonance  will  be  dis  • 
agreeable  to  the  ear.  Hence,  tend  and  th«  last  lyUablo  in  contend  sent  and 
seent  are  nt  allowable  rhymes. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  245 

AD. 

Add,  bad,  dad,  gad,  had,  lad,  mad,  pad,  sad,  brad,  clad,  glad,  plad,  chad, 
&c.  Allowahle  rhymes,  cado,  fade,  &c.,  glede,  bead,  read,  &c.  See  Direc- 
tum 3. 

ADE. 

Cade,  fade,  made,  jade,  lade,  wade,  blade,  glade,  shade,  spade,  trade,  de 
grade,  evade,  dissuade,  invade,  persuade,  blockade,  brigade,  esplanade, 
cavalcade,  masquerade,  renegade,  retrograde,  serenade,  ambuscade,  cannon 
ade,  palUsade,  &c.  Ferfect  rhymes,  aid,  maid,  braid,  afraid,  upbraid,  &c., 
and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ay,  ey,  and  eigh,  as  played, 
obeyed,  weighed,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  add,  bad,  &c.,  bed,  dead,  &c., 
bead,  mead,  &c.,  heed,  need,  &c.    See  Direction  3. 

AFE. 

Safe,  chafe,  vouchsafe,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  leaf,  sheaf,  &c.,  deaf,  &c., 
laugh,  staff,  &o 

AFF- 

Gaff,  chaff,  draff,  quaff,  staff,  engraff,  epitaph,  cenotaph,  paragraph,  &c. 
Perfect  thyme,  laugh.    AUoivable  rhymes,  safe,  chafe,  &c. 

AFT. 
Aft,  haft,  raft,  waft,  craft,  shaft,  abaft,  graft,  draft,  ingraft,  handicraft. 
Per -feet  rhymes,  draught,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  aff  and 
ar.gh,  as  quaffed,  laughed,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  the  preterits  andpartict 
pies  of  verbs  in  afe,  as  chafed,  vouchsafed,  &c. 

AG. 
Bag,  cag,  fag,  gag,  nag,  quag,  rag,  tag,  wag,  brag,  crag,  drag,  flag,  knag. 
6hag,  snag,  stag,  wrag,  scrag,  Brobdignag. 

AGE. 

Age,  cage  gage,  page,  rage,  sage,  wage,  stage,  swage,  assuage,  engage 
diseng^age,  enrage,  presage,  appenage,  concubinage,  heritage,  nermitage, 
parentage,  parsonage,  personage,  pasturage,  patronage,  pilgrimage,  villan 
age,  equipage.  Allowable  rhymes,  edge,  wedge,  &c.,  liege,  siege,  oblige 
&;c. 

AID,  see  ADE. 
AIGHT,  see  ATE. 
AIGN,  see  ANE. 
AIL. 
Ail,  bail,  fail,  hail,  jail,  mail,  nail,  pail,  quail,  lail,  sail,  taU,  wail,  flail, 
frail,  snail,  trail,  assail,  avail,  detail,  bewail,  entail,  prevail,  retail,  counter 
vail,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  ale,  bale,  dale,  gale,  hale,  male,  pale,  sale,  tale 
vale,  Avale,  scale,  stale,  swale,  whale,  impale,  exhale,  regale,  veil,  nightin 
^ale,  &c    Allowable  rhymes,  peal,  steal,  &c.,  bell,  cell,  &c. 
AIM,  see  AME. 
AIN. 
yain,  blain,  brain,  chain,  fain,  gain,  grain,  lain,  main,  pam,  rain,  vain, 
wain,  drain,  plain,  slain,  Spain,  stain,  swain,  train,  twain,  sprain,  strain, 
abstain,  amain,  attain,  complain,  contain,  constrain,  detain,  disdain,  dis- 
train, enchain,  entertain,  explain,  maintain,  ordain,  pertain,  obtain,  refrain, 
regain,  remain,  restrain,^ retain,  sustain,  appertain.    Perfect  rhymes,  bane, 
cane,  aane,  crane,  fane,  jane,  lane,  mane,  plane,  vane,  wane,  profane,  hurri 
cane,  &c.,  deign,  arraign,  campaign,  &c.,  feign,  reign,  &c.,  vein,  rein,  &c. 
Allowable  rhymes    lean,  mean,  &c.,  queen,  seen,  &c.,  ban,  can,  &c.,  den, 
pen,  &c, 

AINT. 
Faint,  paint,  plaint,  quaint,  saint,  taint,  acquaint,  attaint,  complaint,  con 

21* 


24 fi  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

itraint,  restraint,  &c.    Perfect  rk^nu^  feint    Allowable  rhyvfss^  cant,  pant 

&c.,  lent,  r«int,  &c.  

AIR,  see  ARE. 

AISE,  see  AZE. 

AIT,  see  ATE. 

AITH,  see  ATH 

AIZE,  see  AZE. 

AKE. 

Ake,  bake,  cake,  lake,  make,  quake,  rake,  sak ),  take,  wake,  brake,  drake, 

Sake,  shake,  snake,  stake,  strake,  spake,  awake,  betake,  forsake,  mistake, 

partake,  overtake,  undertake,  bespake.    Perfect  rhymes,  break,  steak,  &c. 

Allowable  rhymes^  back,  rack,  &c.,  beck,  deck,  &c.,  speak,  weak,  &c. 

AL. 
Cabal,  canal,  animal,  admiral,  cannibal,  capital,  cardinal,  comical,  conju 

{;al,  corporal,  criminal,  critical,  festival,  funeral,  general,  hospital,  interval, 
iberal,  madrigal,  literal,  magical,  mineral,  mystical,  musical,  natural,  origi 
nal,  pastoral,  pedestal,  personal,  physical,  poetical,  political,  principal, 
prodigal,  prophetical,  rational,  satrical,  reciprocal,  rhetorical,  several,  tem 
poral,  tragical,  tyrannical,  carnival,  schismatical,  whimsical,  arsenal.  M 
Inwable  rhymes^  all,  ball,  &c.,  ail,  mail,  &c.,  ale,  pale,  &c. 

ALD. 
Bald,  scald,  emerald,  &c.     Perfect  rhymes j  the  preterits  and  participles  of 
verbs  in  all,  aul,  and  awl,  as  called,  mauled,  crawled,  &c. 
ALE,  see  AIL. 
ALF. 
Calf,  half,  behalf,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  staff,  laugh,  &c. 

ALK. 

Balk,  chalk,  stalk,  talk,  walk,  calk,  &c.    Perfect  rhyme,  hawk.    Allow 
ble  rhymes^  sock,  clock,  &c. 

ALL. 
All,  ball,  call,  &c.    Perfect  rhym^,    awl,  bawl,  brawl,  crawl,  scrawl, 
sprawl,  squall.    ^/o«>aAfor/ty7ne5,  cabal,  equivocal,  &c.     See  AL. 

ALM. 
Calm,  balm,  becalm,  psalm,  palm,  embalm.  &c.,  whose  plurals  and  third 
persons  singular  rhyme  with  alms,  as  calms,  becalms,  &c. 

ALT. 
Halt,  malt,  exalt,  salt,  vault,  assault,  default,  ajid  fault,  tJtc  last  of  which 
is  by  Pope  rhymed  with  thought,  bought,  &c. 

ALVE. 
Calve,  halve,  salve,  valve. 

im. 

Am,  danv,  ham,  para,  ram,  sam,  cram,  dram,  flam,  sham,  swam,  eplgi-am, 
anagram,  &,c.  Perfect  rhymes,  damn,  lamb.  AUmvable  rhymes,  dame, 
lame,  &c. 

AME. 
Blame,  came,  dame,  same,  fame,  fame,  frame,  game,  lame,  name,  tame 
shame,  inflame,  became,  defame,  misname,  misbecame,  overcame,  &c 
Perfect  r/ivmci,  nim,  claim,  maim,  acclaim,  declaim,  ex£laira,  proclaim,  re 
claim.  Allowable  rhymes,  dam,  ham,  &c.,  hem,  them,  &c.,  theme,  scheme 
Ice,  dream,  gleivm,  &c. 

AMP. 
Camp,  champ   cramp,  damp,  stamp,  vamp,  lamp,  clamp,  decamp,  en 
VIP,  &c. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  247 

AN. 
Ban,  can,  dan,  man,  nan,  pan,  ran,  tan,  van,  bran,  plan,  scan,  span,  than, 
unman,  fore-ran,  began,  trepan,  courtesan,  partisan,  artisan,  pelican,  cara- 
van, &c.     Allowable  rhymes^  bane,  cane,  plain,  mane,  &c.,  bean,  lean,  wan, 
swan,  &c.;  gone,  upon,  &c. 

ANCE. 
Chance,  dance,  glance,  lance,  trance,  prance,  entrance,  romance,  advance, 
mischance,  complaisance,  circumstance,  countenance,  deliverance,  conso- 
nance, dissonance,  extravagance,  ignorance,  inheritance,  maintenance,  tem- 
perance, intemperance,  exhorbitance,  ordinance,  concordance,  sufferance, 
sustenance,  utterance,  arrogance,  vigilance,  expanse,  enhance. 
ANCH. 
Branch,  stanch,  lanch,  blanch,  ranch,  hanch.    Perfect  rhymes^  launch 
paunch. 

AND. 
And,  band,  hand,  land,  rand,  sand,  brand,  bland,  grand,  gland,  stand, 
strand,  conamand,  demand,  countermand,  disband,  expand,  witl^tand, 
understand,  reprimand,  contraband,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes^  wand,  fond, 
bond,  &c.,  arid  tite preterits  attd participles  of  verbs  in  ain  and  ear.,  as  re 
mained,  leaned,  &c 

ANE,  see  AIN. 
ANG. 
Bang,  fang,  gang,  hang,  pang,  tang,  twang,  sang,  rang,  harat.gue,  dang. 
Allowable  rhymes^  song,  long,  &c. 

ANGE. 
Change,  grange,  range,  strange,  estrange,  arrange,  exchange, interchange. 
AlUtrvable  rhymes,  revenge,  avenge,  &c. 

ANK. 
Rank,  blank,  shank,  clank,  dank,  drank,  slank,  frank,  spa  ok,  stank,  lank, 
plank,  prank,  rank,  thank,  disrank,  mountebank,  &c. 
ANSE,  see  ANCE. 
ANT. 
Ant,  cant,  chant,  grant,  pant,  plant,  rant,  slant,  aslant,  complaisant,  dis 
plant,  enchant,  gallant,  implant,  recant,  supplant,  transp'jnt,  absonant,  ad- 
amant, arrogant,  combatant,  consonant,  cormorant,  pro*  astant,  significant, 
visitant,  covenant,  dissonant,  disputant,  eleganfr,  elephan'    exhorbitant,  con 
versant,  extravagant,  ignorant,  insignificant,  inhabitant,  militant,  predomi 
nant,  sycophant,  vigilant,  petulant,  &c.    Allowable  rhyn.es.  faint,  paint,  &c. 
See  A&T  and  ENT. 

AP. 
Cap,  gap,  hap,  lap,  map,  nap,  pap,  rap,  sap,  tap,  chap,  clap,  trap,  flap, 
knap,  slap,  snap,  wrap,  scrap,  strap,  enwrap,  entrap,  mishap,  &c.    Aimvabla 
rJifi/mes,  cape,  tape,  &c.,  cheap,  heap,  and  swap. 

APE. 
Ape,  cape,  chape,  grape,  rape,  sci^pe,  shape,  escape,  mape,  crape,  tapo, 
&c.    A  ^lowable  rhymes,  heap,  keep,  &c. 

APH,  see  AFF. 

APSE. 

Lapse,  elapse,  relapse,  perhaps,  and  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons 

singular  of  the  present  tense  m  ap,  as  caps,  maps,  &c.,  he  saps,  he  laps, 

&C.     Allowable  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons  singtdar  of 

verbs  in  ape  a/iid  eap,  as  apes,  he  apes,  heaps,  he  heaps,  &c. 

APT. 
Apt,  adapt,  &3.,  rhymes,  thepreterits  and  participles  of  the  verbs  in  ap,  as 
tapped,  slapped,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  thepreterits  and  participles  of  tJi« 
veros  in  ape,  a:  aped,  escaned,  &c 


248  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

AR. 
Bar,  car,  far,  jar,  mar,  par,  tar,  spar,  scar,  star,  chair,  afar,  debar,  nnbar 
catarrh,  particular,  perpendicular,  secular,  an^ar,  regular,  popular,  singu 
lar,  titular,  vinegar,  scimeter,  calendar,  colanaer.  Perfect  rhyme,  theplurcU 
verb  are.  Allowable  rhymes,  bare,  prepare,  &c.,  pair,  repair,  wear,  tear, 
war,  &c.,  and  words  ervling  in  er  or  ox,  having  the  accent  on  the  last  fyllaiU, 
or  last  bui  two. 

ARB. 
Barb,  garb,  &c. 

^  ARCE. 

Farce,  parse,  Mars,  &c.    Allowable  rhyme,  scarce. 

ARCH. 

Arch,  march,  parch,  starch,  countermarch,  &c. 

ARD. 
Bard,  card,  guard,  hard,  lard,  nard,  shard,  yard,  bombard,  discard,  re 
gard,  interlard,  retard,  disregard,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of 
verbs  in  ar,  as  barred,  scarred,  &c.    AUowahle  rhymes,  cord,  reward,  &c 

ARD. 
"Ward,  award,  reward,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  hard,  card,  see  tlu  last 
article,  hoard,  lord,  bird,  curd,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  the  verbs 
in  ar,  or,  anA  ur,  as  barred,  abhorred,  incurred,  &c. 

ARE. 

Bare,  care,  dare,  fare,  hare,  mare,  pare,  tare,  rare,  ware,  flare,  glnre,  scare, 
share,  snare,  spare,  square,  stare,  sware,  prepare,  aware,  beware,  compare, 
declare,  ensnare.  Perfect  rhymes,  air,  fair,  hair,  lair,  pair,  chair,  stair,  aJOfair 
debonnair,  despair,  impair,  repair,  &c.,  bear,  pear,  swear,  tear,  wear,  for 
bear,  forswear,  &c ,  there,  were,  where,  ere,  e'er,  ne'er,  elsewhere,  whute'er, 
nowe'er,  howsoe'er,  whene'er,  where'er,  &c.,  heir,  coheir,  their.  AlhwaMe 
rhymes,  bar,  car,  &c.,  err,  prefer,  and  here,  hear,  &c.,  regular,  singular 
war,  &c. 

ARES. 

Unawares.  EJiymes,  theirs,  and  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  person-* 
singular  of  verbs  in  are,  air.  oir,  ear,  as  care,  he  cares,  pair,  he  pairs,  heirs 
boar,  he  bears,  &c.  Tlie  allowable  rhymes  are  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  th, 
third  persons  singular  of  veubs  which  are  allowed  to  rhyme  with  the  termtna 
tion  ars,  as  bars,  cars,  errs,  prefers,  &c. 

ARF. 
Scarf.    Allowable  rhymes,  dwarf,  wharf. 

ARGE. 
Barge,  charge,  large,  targe,  discharge,  o'ercharge,  surcharge,  enlai^e 
Allowable  rhymes,  verge,  emerge,  gorge,  forge,  urge,  &c. 

ARK. 
Bark,  cark,  dark,  dark,  lark,  mark,  park,  shark,  spark,  stark,  embark 
remark,  &o     AllowaUe  rhymes,  cork,  fork,  &c. 

ARL. 
Snarl,  marl,  pari.    Allowable  rhymes,  curl,  furl,  &c. 

ARM. 
Arm,  barm,  charm,  farm,  harm,  alarm,  disarm.   AllowaUe  rhymes  warn 
•irarm,  stonn,  &c. 

ARN. 
Bam,  yani,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  warn,  forewarn,  &c.,  hem,  mora,  &« 

ARN. 
Wam,  forwam.     Perfect  rhymes,   horn    mora.   &c.     AUowatle  rhyme» 
barn,  yarn,  &o. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  249 

AEP. 
Carp,  harp,  sharp,  counterscarp,  &c.    Allowable  rhyme,  warp 

ARSH, 
Harsh,  marsh,  &c, 

AET. 
Art,  cart,  dart,  hart,  mart,  part,  smart,  tart,  start,  apart,  depart,  impart 
dispart,  counterpart.     Perfect  rhymes,  heart,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  wart 
thwart,  &c.,  hurt,  &c.,  dirt,  flirt,  &c.,  pert,  &c. 
ART  (sounded  ORT). 
Wart,  thwart,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  short,  retort,  &c.    Allowable  rhymea, 
art,  sport,  court,  &c. 

ARTH,  see  EARTH. 

ARVE. 
Carve,  starve,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  nerve,  deserve,  &c. 

AS. 
Was.    Allowable  rhymes,  has  as. 

ASS. 
Ass,  brass,  class,  grass,  lass,  mass,  pass,  alas,  amass,  cuirass,  repass,  sur 
pass,  morass,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  base,  face,  deface,  &c.,  loss,  toss,  &o 
ASE,  see  ACE. 
ASH. 
Ash,  cash,  dash,  clash,  crash,  flash,  gash,  gnash,  hash,  lash,  plash,  rash, 
thrash,  slash,  trash,  abash,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  wash,  quash,  &c.,  leash 
&c. 

ASH. 
Wash,  quash,  &c.    Alloioable  rhymes,  cash,  dash,  &c. 

ASK. 
Ask,  task,  bask,  cask,  flask,  mask. 

ASP. 
Asp, 'clasp,  gasp,  grasp,  hasp.    Allowable  rhymes,  wasp,  &c. 

AST. 
Cast,  last,  blast,  mast,  past,  vast,  fast,  aghast,  avast,  forecast,  overcast, 
outcast,  repast.     Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ass. 
as  classed,  amassed,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  oj 
verbs  in  ace,  as  placed,  &c.    Nouns  arid  verbs  in  aste,  as  taste,  waste,  &c. 
ASTE. 
Baste,  chaste,  haste,  paste,  taste,  waste,  distaste.    Perfect  rhymes,  waist, 
and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ace,  as  faced,  placed,  &c.  Allow- 
able rhymes,  cast,  fast,  &c.,  best,  nest,  &c.,  a7id  the  preterits  and  participles 
of  verbs  in  ess,  a^  messed,  dressed,  &c. 

AT. 
At,  bat,  cat,  hat,  fat,  mat,  pat,  rat,  lat  tat,  vat,  brat,  chat,  flat,  plat,  ^prat, 
that,  gnat.    Allowable  rhymes,  bate,  hate,  &c. 

ATCH. 

Catch,  match,  hatch,  latch,  patch,  scratch,  smatch,  snatch,  despatch. 
ATE. 

Bate,  date,  fate,  gate,  grate,  hate,  tate,  mate,  pate,  plate,  prate,  rate,  sate, 
state,  scate,  slate,  abate,  belate,  collate,  create,  debate,  elate,  dilate,  estate, 
ingrate,  innate,  rebate,  relate,  sedate,  translate,  abdicate,  abominate,  abro- 
gate, accelerate,  accommodate,  accumulate,  accurate,  adequate,  affection 
ate,  advocate,  adulterate,  aggravate,  agitate,  alienate,  animate,  annihilate, 
antedate,  anticipate,  antiquate,  arbitrate,  arrogate,  articulate,  assassinate, 
calculate,  capitulate,  captivate,  celebrate,  circulate,  coagulate,  commemor- 
ate, commiserate,  communicate,  compassionate,  confederate,  congratulate, 
congregate,  consecrate,  contaminate,  corroborate,  cultivate,  candidate^  coop 


f50  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

erate,  celebrate,  considerate,  consulate,  capacitate,  debilitate,  dedicate,  d» 
generate,  delegate,  deliberate,  denominate,  depopulate,  dislocate,  deprecate 
discriminate,  derogate,  dissipate,  delicate,  disconsolate,  desperate,  deprecate, 
educate,  eflfeminate,  elevate,  emulate,  estimate,  elaborate,  equivocate,  eradi- 
cate, evaporate,  exaggerate,  exasperate,  expostulate,  exterminate,  extricate, 
facilitate,  fortunate,  generate,  gratulate,  hesitate,  illiterate,  illuminate,  irritate, 
imitate,  immodftrate,  impetrale,  importunate,  imprecate,  inanimate,  inno- 
vate, instij^ate,  mtemperate,  intimate,  intimidate,  intoxicate,  intricate,  in 
ralidate,  inveterate,  inviolate,  legitimate,  magistrate,  meditate,  mitigate, 
moderate,  necessitate,  nominate,  obstinate,  participate,  passionate,  penetrate, 
perpetrate,  personate,  potentate,  precipitate,  predestinate,  predominate, 
premeditate,  prevaricate,  procrastinate,  profligate,  prognosticate,  propagate, 
recriminate,  regenerate,  regulate,  reiterate,  reprobate,  reverberate,  rumin - 
ate,  separate,  sophisticate,  stipulate,  subjugate,  subordinate,  suffocate,  ter 
minate,  tolerate,  temperate,  vmdicate,  violate,  unfortunate.  Perfect  rhymes^ 
bait,  plait,  strait,  wait,  await,  great.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  eight,  weight, 
height,  straight.  Allowable  rhymes,  beat,  heat,  &c.,  bat,  cat,  &c.,  bet,  wet,  &c 

ATH. 
Bath,  path,  &c.    Allowable  rhym^,  hath,  faith,  &c. 

ATHE. 
Bathe,  swathe,  lathe,  rathe. 

AUB,  see  OB. 

AUCE,  see  AUSE. 

AUCH,  see  OACH. 

AUD. 

Fraud,  laud,  applaud,  defraud.    Perfect  rhymes,  broad,  abroad,  bawd ;  an% 

the  preterits  cmd  participles  of  verbs  in  aw,  as  gnawed,  sawed,  &c.    Allowahlt 

rhymes,  odd,  nod,  &c..  ode,  bode,  &c. ;  also  tlce  word  load. 

AVE. 
Cave,  brave,  gave,  gi-ave,  crave,  lave,  nave,  knave,  pave,  rave,  save,  shave, 
slave,  stave,  wave,  behave,  deprave,  engrave,  outbrave,  forgave,  misgave, 
architrave.    Allowable  rhyme,  t/te  auxiliary  verb  have. 
AUGH,  see  AFF. 
AUGHT,  see  OUGHT. 
AULT,  see  ALT. 
AUNCH. 
Launch,  paunch,  havinch,  staunch,  &c. 

AUNCE,  see  ONSE. 
AUNT. 
Aunt,  daunt,  gaunt,  haunt,  jaunt,  taunt,  vaunt,  avaunt.    Perfect  rhfmn 
•lant,  aslant.    Allowable  rhymes,  want,  &c.,  pant,  cant,  &c 
AUSE. 
Cause,  pause,  clause,  applause,  because.    Pmfect  rhymes,  the  plitraU  oj 
nouns,  atid  third  ptrsoiis  siit^iilar  of  verbs  in  aw,  as  laws,  he  draws,  &o. 
AUoirvaUe  rhyme,  was. 

AUST,  see  OST, 
AW. 
Craw,  daw,  law,  chaw,  claw,  draw,  flaw,  gnaw,  jaw,  law,  maw,  paw,  raw, 
•aw,  straw,  thaw,  withdraw,  foresaw. 

»  AWD,  see  AUD. 

AWK,  see  ALK. 

.      ,  ,  AWL. 

Bawl,  brawl,  drawl,  crawl    scrawl,  sprawl,  squall.    Perfect  rAym^rbalL 
•fti;,  faU,  gall,  small,  haU,  pall,  taU,  wall,  stall,  install,  forestall,  thrall,  inlhraU* 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  251 

AWN. 

Dawn,  brawn,  fawn,  pawn,  spawn,  drawn,  yawn,  lawn,  withdrawn. 

AX. 
Ax,  tax,  wax,  relax,  flax.     Perfect  rhymes^  the  plurals  ofnotms,  and  third 
persons  sinsidar  of  verbs  in  ack,  as  backs,  sacks,  &c.jhe  la.cks,  he  packs,  &c. 
Allowable  rhymes^  the  plurals  of  nouns  ^  and  third  persons  singular  of  verbs  in 
ake,  as  cakes,  lakes,  &c.,  he  makes,  he  takes,  &c. 

AY. 
Bray,  clay,  day,  dray,  tray,  flay,  fray,  gay,  hay,  jay,  lay,  may,  nay,  pay, 
play,  i*ay,  say,  way,  pray,  spray,  slay,  spay,  stay,  stray,  sway,  affray,  allay, 
Rrray,  astray,  away,  belay,  bewray,  betray,  decay,  defray,  delay,  disarray, 
d. splay,  dismay,  essay,  forelay,  gainsay,  inlay,  relay,  repay,  roundelay, 
virelay.  Perfect  rhymes^  neigh,  weigh,  inveigh,  &c.,  prey,  they,  convey, 
obey,  purvey,  survey,  disobey,  grey.  Allowable  rhymes.,  tea,  sea,  fee,  see, 
rfee,  (fee. 

AZE. 
Craze,  daze,  blaze,  gaze,  glaze,  maze,  raze,  amaze,  graze.    Perfect  rhymes., 
raise,  praise,  dispraise,  &c.,  phrase,  paraphrase,  &c.,  and  the  nouns  plural, 
and  third  persons  singular  of  tJie  present  tense  of  verbs  in  ay,  eigh,  and  ey ; 
as  days,  he  inveighs,  he  obeys,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  ease,  tease,  seize,  &c 
and  keys,  the  plural  o/key ;  also  the  auxiliaries  has  a7id  was. 
E  and  EA,  see  EE. 
E ACE,,  see  EASE. 
EACH. 
Beach,  breach,  bleach,  each,  peach,  preach,  teach,  impeach.  Nearly  perfect 
rhymes,  beech,  leech,  speech,  beseech.     Allowable  rhymes,  fetch,  wretch,  &c. 
EAD,  see  EDE  and  EED. 
EAF,  see  lEF. 
EAGUE. 
League,  teague,  &c.     Perfect  rhymes,  intrigue,  fatigue,  &;c.    AUowabU 
rhymes,  Hague,  vague,  &c.,  leg,  beg,  &c.,  bag,  rag,  &c. . 
EAK,  see  AKE. 
Beak,  speak,  bleak,  creak,  freak,  leak,  peak,  sneak,  squeak,  streak,  weak, 
tweak,  wreak,  bespeak.     Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  cheek,  leek,  creek,  meek, 
reek,  seek,  sleek,  pique,  week,  shriek.    AUoioable  rhymes,  beck,  speck,  &c., 
lake,  take,  thick,  lick,  &c. 

EAL. 
Deal,  heal,  reveal,  meal,  peal,  seal,  steal,  teal,  veal,  weal,  zeal,  squeal, 
repeal,  conceal,  congeal,  anneal,  appeal.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  eel,  heel, 
feel,  keel,  kneel,  peel,  reel,  steel,  wheel.    Allowable  rhymes,  bell,  tell,  &c.. 
Dale,  tale,  &c.,  bHl,  fill,  &c.,  ail,  fail,  &c. 

EALM,  see  ELM. 
EALTH. 
Health,  wealth,  stealth,  commonwealth,  &c, 

EAM. 
Bream,  cream,  gleam,  seam,  scream,  steam,  stream,  team,  beam,  dream. 
Perfect  rhymes,  phlegm,  scheme,  theme,  blaspheme,  extreme,  supreme. 
Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  deem,  teem,  beseem,  misdeem,  esteem,  disesteem, 
redeem,  seem,  &c.  AllowaJ)le  rhymes,  dame,  lame,  &c.,  limb,  him,  &€., 
them,  hem,  &c.,  lamb,  dam,  &c.     See  AME. 

EAN. 
Bean,  clean,   dean,  glean,  lean,  mean,  wean,  yean,  demean,  unclean. 
Perfect  rhymes,  convene,  demesne,  intervene,  mien.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes, 
machine,  keen,  screen,  seen,  green,  spleen,  between,  careen,  foreseen,  serene. 


252  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

obscene,  terrene,  &c.,  queen,  spleen,  &c.    Allowable  rhymet^  bane,  mane,  &e 
ban,  man,  &c.,  bin,  thm,  begin,  &c. 

EANS,  see  ENSE. 

EANT,  see  ENT. 

EAP,  see  EEP  and  EP. 

EAR,  see  EER. 

EARD. 


EARCH.  » 

Search,  perch,  research.  AUowaUe  rhymes,  church,  smirch,  lurch,  parch 
march,  &c. 

EARL. 
Earl,  pearl.    Perfect  rhyme,  girl,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes^  snarl,  marl,  chuxi 
furl,  &c. 

EARN,  see  ERN. 

EARSE,  see  ERSE. 

EART,  see  ART. 

EARTH. 

Earth,  dearth.     Perfect  rhymes^  birth,  mirth,  &c.    AUowahU  rhymes 

nearth,  &c. 

EASE,  sounded  EACE. 
Cease,  lease,  release,  grease,  decease,  decrease,  increase,  release,  surcease. 
Perfect  rhyme,  peace.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  piece,  niece,  fleece,  geese, 
frontispiece,  apiece,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  less,  mess,  &c.,  lace,  mace,  &c., 
miss,  hiss,  &c.,  nice,  vice,  &c. 

EASH,  see  ESH. 

EAST. 

East,  feast,  least,  beast.  Perfect  rhymes,  and  preterits  and  participles  of 
verbs  in  ease,  as  ceased,  increased,  &c.  Nearly  perfect  rhyme,  priest.  Al' 
lowable  rhymes,  haste,  taste,  &c.,  best,  chest,  &c.,  fist,  list,  &c.,  and  ths 
prettrits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  esse  and  iss,  cts  dressed,  hissed,  &c. 

EAT. 
Bleat,  eat,  feat,  heat,  meat,  neat,  seat,  treat,  wheat,  beat,  cheat,  defeat, 
estreat,  escheat,  entreat,  retreat.  Perfect  rhymes,  obsolete,  replete,  concrete, 
complete.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  feet,  fleet,  gleet,  greet,  meet,  sheet,  sleet, 
street,  sweet,  discreet.  Allowable  rhymes,  bate,  grate,  nate,  &c.,  get,  met,  &c., 
bit,  hit,  &c.     See  ATE. 

EATH. 
Breath,  death,  &c,    Allowable  rhymes,  heath,  sheath,  teeth. 

EATHE. 
Breathe,  sheathe,  &c.    Perfect  rhymss,  wreath,  inwreath,  bequeath,  be 
neath,  underneath,  itc.    Nearly  perfect  rhym*t,  seethe,  &c. 
EAVE. 
Cleave,   heave,   interweave,  leave,   weave,  bereave,  inweave.     Perfed 
rhymes,  receive,  conceive,  deceive,  nerceivo.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  eve, 
grieve,  thieve,  aggrieve,  achieve,  believe,  disbelieve,  relieve,  reprieve,  re 
trieve.    Allowable  rhymes,  give,  live,  &c.,  lave,  cave,  &o.,  atid  have 

EBB. 
Ebb,  web,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  babe,  astrolabe,  &c.,  glebe,  &c. 

ECK. 
Back,  neck,  check,  deck,  speck,  wreck.    Allowable  rhymes,  break,  taks 
fcc  beak,  sneak  &o 


AIDS    TO   ENGIJSH    COMPOSrTlON.  263 

ECT. 
Sect,  abject,  affect,  correct,  incorrect,_  collect,  deject,  detect,  direct,  dis 
respect,  disaffect,  dissect,  effect,  elect,  eject,  erect,  expect,  indirect,  infectj 
inspect,  neglect,  object,  project,  protect,  recollect,  reflect,  reject,  respect, 
select,  subject,  suspect,  architect,  circumspect,  dialect,  intellect.  Perfed 
rhymes^  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  eck,  as  decked,  checked,  &c. 
MlowMe  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ake,  and  eak,  ai 
baked,  leaked. 

ED. 
Bed,  bled,  fed,  fled,  bred,  led,  red,  shred,  shed,  sped,  wed,  abed,  inbred 
misled.  Perfect  rhymes,  said,  bread,  dread,  dead,  head,  lead,  read,  spread, 
Uiread,  tread,  behead,  o'erspread.  Allowable  rhymes,  bead,  mead,  &c.,  blade, 
"ade,  &c.,  maid,  paid,  &c.,  and  thepreterils  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ay,  ey, 
vnd  eigh,  as  bayed,  obeyed,  veighed,  &  c 

EDE,  see  EED. 
EDGE. 
Edge,  wedge,  fledge,  hedge,  ledge,  pledge,  sedge,  allege.   Allowable  rhymes 
age,  page,  &c.,  siege,  oblige,  &c.,  privilege,  sacrilege,  sortilege. 

EE. 
Bee,  free,  glee,  knee,  see,  three,  thee,  tree,  agree,  decree,  degree,  disagree, 
foresee,  o'ersee,  pedigree,  he,  me,  we,  she,  be,  jubilee,  lee.  Nearly  perfect 
rhymes,  sea,  plea,  flea,  tea,  key.  Allowable  rhymes,  all  words  of  one  syllable 
ending  in  y,  ye,  or  ie,  or  polysyllables  of  these  terminations  having  the  accent 
on  the  ultimate  or  antepenultimate  syllable. 

EECE,  see  EASE. 

EECH,  see  EACH. 

EED. 

Creed,  deed,  indeed,  bleed,  breed,  feed,  heed,  meed,  need,  reed,  speea 

leed,  steed,  weed,  proceed,  succeed,  exceed.    Perfect  rhymes,  knead,  read 

intercede,  precede,  recede,  concede,  impede,  supersede,  &c.,  bead,  lead 

mead,  plead,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  bed,  dead,  &c.,  bid,  hid,  &c.,  made 

blade,  &c. 

EEF,  see  lEF. 

EEK,  see  EAK 

EEL,  see  EAL 

EEM,  see  EAA 

EEN,  see  EAN. 

EEP. 

Creep,  deep,  sleep,  keep,  peep,  sheep,  steep,  sweep,  weep,  asleep.    Nearly 

fcrfect  thymes,  cheap,  heap,  neap,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  ape,  rap©,  &c. 

step,  ncp,  &c.,  hip,  lip,  &c. 

EER. 
Beer,  deer,  fleer,  geer,  jeer,  peer,  meer,  leer,  sheer,  steer,  sneer,  cheer, 
veer,  picker,  domineer,  cannoneer,  compeer,  engineer,  mutineer,  pioneer, 
privateer,  charioteer,  chanticleer,  career,  mountaineer.  Perfect  rhymes 
here,  sphere,  adhere,  cohere,  interfere,  persevere,  revere,  austere,  severe^ 
sincere,  hemisphere,  &c.,  ear,  clear,  dear,  fear,  hear,  near,  sear,  smear 
spear,  tear,  rear,  year,  appear,  besmear,  disappear,  endear,  auctioneer.  AL 
wwable  rhymes,  bare,  dare,  &c ,  prefer,  deter,  character,  &c. 
EESE,  see  EEZE. 

EET,  see  EAT. 
EETH,  see  EATH. 
EEVE,  see  EAVE. 

22 


254  AIDS   TO     KNGLI8H    COMPOSITION. 

EEZE. 
Breeze,  freeze,  wheeze,  sneeze,  squeeze,  and  ths  plurals  of  noji-.t  and 
third  persons  sijigtdar,  present  tense,  of  verbs  in  ee,  a*  bees,  he  sees.  Per 
feet  rhymes,  cheese,  these,  &c.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  ease,  appease,  dis- 
ease, displease,  tease,  seize,  &c.,  and  the  plurals  of  Twuns  m  ea,  as  teas, 
pleas.  &c.,  ayia  the  polysyllables  eliding  in  es,  Iiaving  the  accent  on  tJie  ante- 
penultimate, as  images,  monarchies,  &c. 

EFT. 
Cleft,  left,  theft,  weft,  bereft,  &c.    AUotoalle  rhymes,  lift,  sift,  &c.,  arut 
the  third  persons  si7igular,  present  tense,  of  verbs  in  afe,  afF,  augh,  and  iff,  as 
chafed,  quaffed,  laughed,  whiffed,  &c. 

EG. 
Egg,  leg,  beg,  peg.     Allowable   rhymes,  vague,  plague,    &c.,  league, 
teagne,  &c. 

EIGH,  see  AY. 

EIGHT,  see  ATE. 

EIGN,  see  AIN. 

EIL,  see  AIL. 

EIN,  see  AIN. 

EINT,  see  AINT. 

EIR,  see  ABE. 

EIT,  see  EAT. 

EIVE,  see  EAVE. 

EIZE,  see  EEZE. 

ELL. 

Ell,  dwell,  fell,  hell,  knell,  quell,  seU,  bell,  cell,  dispel,  foretell,  excel, 

compel,  befell,  yell,  well,  tell,  swell,  spell,  smell,  shell,  parallel,  sentinel, 

infidel,  citadel,  reiel,  repel,  rebel,  impel,  expel.    Allowable  rhymes,  bale, 

sale,  &c.,  heal,  peal,  &c.,  eel,  steel,  &c. 

ELD. 
Held,  geld,  withheld,  upheld,  beheld,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits 
vnd  partteiples  of  terbs  in  ell,  as  swelled,  felled,  &c.     Allowable  rhymes, 
ike  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ale,  ail,  &c.,  heal,  seal,  &c.,  <m  em 
paled,  wailed,  &c.,  healed,  sealed,  &c. 
ELF. 
Elf,  pelf,  self,  shelf,  himself,  &c. 

ELK. 
Elk,  whelk,  &c. 

ELM. 
Elm,  helm,  realm,  whelm,  overwhelm,  &c.     AUotoaUe  rhymes,  pfthn. 
film,  &c. 

ELP. 
Help,  whelp,  yelp,  &c. 

ELT. 
Belt,  gelt,  melt,  felt,  welt,  smelt,  pelt,  dwelt.    Perfect  rhyme^  dealt 

ELVE. 
Delve,  helve,  twelve,  &c. 

ELVES. 
Elves,  themselves,  &c.     Perfect  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  thxrd 
person*  nngular  of  verbs  in  tMand  elve,  tis  twelves,  delves,  shelves,  &a 

EM. 
Gem,  hem,  stem,  them,  diadem,  stratagem,  &c.     Perfect  rhymes,  con- 
demn, contemn,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  lame,  tame,&c.,  team,  seam,  thera^ 
phlegm.  &c. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  255 

EME,  see  EAM. 
EMN. 
Condemn,  contemn,  &c.     Perfect  rhymes^  gem,  hem,  &c.    MlowabU 
\ymest  lame,  tame,  &c.,  team,  seam,  &c. 
EMPT. 
Tempt,  exempt,  attempt,  contempt. 

EN. 
Den,  hen,  fen,  ken,  men,  pen,  ten,  then,  when,  wren,  denizen.    AUowabU 
fkymes,  bane,  fane,  &c.,  mean,  bean,  &c. 
ENCE. 
Fence,  hence,  pence,  thence,  whence,  defence,  expense,  oflfence,  pretence, 
commence,  abstinence,  circumference,  conference,  confidence,  consequence, 
continence,  benevolence,  concupiscence,  difference,  diffidence,  diligence, 
eloquence,  eminence,  evidence,  excellence,  impenitence,  impertinence,  im 
potence,  impudence,  improvidence,  incontinence,  indifference,  indigence, 
mdolence,  inference,  intelligence,  innocence,  magnificence,  munificence, 
negligence,  omnipotence,  penitence,  preference,  providence,  recompense, 
refex-ence,  residence,  reverence,  vehemence,  violence.    Perfect  rhymes^  sense, 
dense,  cense,  condense,  immense,  intense,  propense,  dispense,  suspense, 
prepense,  incense,  frankincense. 

ENCH. 
Bench,  drench,  retrench,  quench,  clench,  stench,  tench,  trench,  wench, 
wrench,  intrench. 

END. 
Bend,  mend,  blend,  end,  fend,  lend,  rend,  send,  spend,  tend,  vend,  amend, 
attend,  ascend,  commend,  contend,  defend,  depend,  descend,  distend,  ex 
pend,  extend,  forefend,  impend,  misspend,  obtend,  offend,  portend,  pretend, 
protend,  suspend,  transcend,  unbend,  apprehend,  comprehend,  condescend, 
discommend,  recommend,  reprehend,  dividend,  reverend.  Perfect  rhymes, 
friend,  hefriend,  and  the  preterits  anA  participles  of  verbs  in  en,  as  penned, 
kenned,  &c.  AUotaable  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ean, 
as  gleaned,  yeaned,  &c. 

ENDS. 

Amends.     Perfect  rhymes,  the  plurals  ofnmms,  and  third  persons  sins^u 

lar,  present  tense,  of  verbs  in  end,  as  ends,  friends,  he  mends,  &c. 

ENE,seeEAN. 

ENGE. 

Avenge,  revenge,  &c. 

ENGTH. 
Length,  strength,  &c. 

ENSE,  sounded  ENZE. 
Cleanse.     Perfect  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  tiouns,  and  third  persons  singu- 
iar,  present  tense,  of  verbs  in  en,  as  hens,  fens,  he  pens,  he  kens,  &c. 

ENT. 
Bent,  lent,  rent,  pent,  scent,  sent,  shent,  spent,  tent,  vent,  went,  absent, 
meant,  ascent,  assent,  attent,  augment,  cement,  content,  consent,  descent, 
dissent,  event,  extent,  foment,  frequent,  indent,  intent,  mvent,  lament,  mis- 
spent, o'erspent,  present,  prevent,  relent,  repent,  resent,  ostent,  ferment, 
outwent,  underwent,  discontent,  unbent,  circumvent,  represent,  abstinent, 
accident,  accomplishment,  admonishment,  acknowledgment,  aliment,  arbi 
trement,  argument,  banishment,  battlement,  blandishment,  astonishment, 
armipotent,  bellipotent,  benevolent,  chastisement,  competent,  compliment, 
complement,  confident,  continent,  corpulent,  detnment,  different,  diffident, 
diligent,  disparagement,  document,  element,  eloquent,  eminent,  equivalent, 
establishment,  evident,  excellent,  excrement,  exigent,  experiment,  firma 
ment,  fraudulent,  government,  embellishment,  imminent,  impendent,  im 


256  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

pertinent,  implement,  impotent,  imprisonment,  improvident,  impudent,  inci 
dent,  incompetent,  incontinent,  indifferent,  indigent,  innocent,  insolent, 
instrument,  irreverent,  languishment,  ligament,  lineament,  magpificent, 
management,  medicament,  nialecontent,  monument,  negligent,  nourishment, 
nutriment,  Occident,  omnipotent,  opulent,  ornament,  parliament,  penitent, 
permanent,  pertinent,  president,  precedent,  prevalent,  provident,  punish 
ment,  ravishment,  regiment,  resident,  redolent,  rudiment,  sacrament,  sedi 
nient,  sentiment,  settlement,  subsequent,  supplement,  intelligent,  tenement, 
temperament,  testament,  tournament,  turbulent,  vehement,  violent,  virulent 
reverent.    AUotoable  rhymes,  paint,  saint,  &c. 

ENTS. 
Accoutrements.    Perfect  rhymes ^tJie  plurah  of  nouns,  and  third  persons 
smg^ular,  present  tense,  of  verbs  in  ent,  as  scents,  he  assents,  &c. 

EP. 

Step,  nep,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  leap,  reap,  &c.,  rape,  tape,  &c. 

EPT. 
Accept,  adept,  except,  intercept,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  crept,  slept,  wept, 
kept.    Allowable  rhymes,  the  preterits  a/nd  particles  of  verbs  vn  ape,  eep,  and 
eap,  as  peeped,  reaped,  shaped,  &c. 

EBB. 

Err,  aver,  defer,  infer,  deter,  inter,  refer,  transfer,  confer,  prefer,  parterre, 
administer,  wagoner,  islander,  arbiter,  character,  villager,  cottager,  dowager, 
forager,  pillager,  voyager,  massacre,  gardener,  slanderer,  flatterer,  idolater, 
provender,  theatre,  amphitheatre,  foreigner,  lavender,  messenger,  passenger, 
sorcerer,  inteipreter,  officer,  mariner,  harbinger,  minister,  register,  canister, 
chorister,  sopnister,  presbyter,  lawgiver,  philosopher,  astrologer,  loiterer, 
prisoner,  grasshopper,  astronomer,  sepulchre,  thunderer,  traveller,  murderer, 
usurer.  AUotoable  rhymes,  bare,  care,  &c.,  ear,  fear,  &c.,  bar,  car,  &c.,  sir, 
fir,  her,  &c. 

ERCH,  see  EARCH. 

ERCE,  see  ERSE. 

ERD,  see  EARD. 

ERE,  see  EEE. 

feRGE. 

Verge,  absterge,  emerge,  immerge.    Perfect  rhym^,  dirge.    Nearly  perfm 

rhyme,  urge,  purge,  surge.    Allowable  rhymes,  barge,  large,  &c. 

ERN. 
Fern,  stern,  discern,  concern.    Perfect  rhymes,  learn,  earn,  yearn,  &c 
Allowable  rhymes,  bam,  yarn,  &c.,  burn,  turn,  &c. 
ERSE. 
Verbe,  herso,  absterse,  adverse,  averse,  converse^  disperse,  immerse,  per- 
verse, reverse,  traverse,  asperse,  intersperse,  universe.     Perfect  rhymes, 
amerce,  coerce,  &c.,  fierce,  tierce,  pierce,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  farce, 
parce,  Mars,  &c.,  purse,  curse,  &c. 

ERT. 
Wert,  advert,  assert,  avert,  concert,  convert,  controvert,  desert,  divert, 
exert,  expert,  insert,  invert,  pervert,  subvert.    AUowaUe   rhymes,  heart, 
part,  &c.,  shirt,  dirt,  &c.,  hurt,  spurt,  &c. 

ERVE. 
Servo,  nerve,  swerve,  preserve,  deserve,  conserve,  observe,  reserv*    dis 
•erve,  subserve.    Allowable  rhymes,  starve,  carve,  &c.,  curve,  &c. 

ESS. 
Bless,  dress,  cess,  chess,  guess,  less,  mess,  press,  stress,  acquitsce,  acres* 
Moress,  assess,  compress,  confess.  o«ircs8,  depress,  digress,  disr/>s»««k,  dia 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  257 

tress,  excess,  express,  impress,  oppress,  possess,  profess,  recess,  repress,  re 
dress,  success,  transgress,  adulteress,  bashfulness,  bitterness,  cheerfulness, 
comfortless,  comeliness,  dizziness,  diocese,  drowsiness,  eagerness,  easiness, 
embassadress,  emptiness,  evenness,  fatherless,  filthiness,  foolishness,  forget- 
fulness,  forwardness,  frowardness,  fruitfulness,  fulsomeness,  giddiness, 
greediness,  gentleness,  governess,  happiness,  haughtiness,  heaviness,  idle 
ness,  heinousness,  hoaryness,  hollowness,  holiness,  lasciviousness,  lawful 
ness,  laziness,  littleness,  liveliness,  loftiness,  lioness^  lowliness,  manliness, 
masterless,  mightiness,  motherless,  motionless,  nakedness,  neediness,  nois 
omeness,  numberless,  patroness,  peevishness,  perfidiousness,  pitiless,  poetess, 
prophetess,  ransomless,  readiness,  righteousness,  shepherdess,  sorceress,  sor- 
didness,  spiritless,  sprightliness,  stubbornness,  sturdiness,  surliness,  steadi- 
ness, tenderness,  thoughtfulness,  ugliness,  uneasiness,  unhapniness,  vota 
ress,  usefulness,  wakefulness,  wantonness,  weaponless,  wanness,  willing 
ness,  Ti  ilfulness,  weariness,  wickedness,  wilderness,  wretchedness,  drunken 
ness,  childishness.  Allowable  rhymes^  mass,  pass,  &c.j  mace,  place,  &c. 
ESE,  see  EEZE. 
ESH. 
Flesh,  fresh,  refresh,  thresh,  afresh,  mesh.  AUonmhlf^  ■>hvi>:es^  mash, 
flash,  &c. 

ESK. 
Desk.    Perfect  Rhymes,  grotesque,  burlesque,  &c.    Allowable  Bhymes, 
mask,  ask. 

EST. 
Best,  chest,  crest,  guest,  jest,  nest,  pest,  quest,  rest,  test,  vest,  west,  ar- 
rest, attest,  bequest,  contest,  detest,  digest,  divest,  invest,  infest,  molest, 
obtest,  protest,  request,  suggest,  unrest,  interest,  manifest,  &c.  Perfect 
rhymes,  breast,  abreast,  &c.,  and'the  preterits  and<participles  of  verbs  in  ess, 
Of  dressed,  abreast,  expressed,  &c.  Allowable  rhynf.es.  oast  %st.  <^rc.,  haste, 
V  .iste,  &c.,  beast,  least,  &c.    See  EAST. 

ET. 
Bet,  jet,  fret,  get,  let,  met,  net,  set,  wet,  whet,  yet,  debt,  abet,  beget,  be 
set,  forget,  regret,  alphabet,  amulet,  anchoret,  caumec,  epitnet,  parapet, 
rivulet,  violet,  counterfeit,  coronet,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  sweat,  threat,  &c 
Allowable  rhymes,  bate,  hate,  &c.,  beat,  heat,  &c. 
ETCH. 
Fetch,  stretch,  wretch,  sketch,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  match,  latch,  &c 
peach,  bleach,  &c. 

ETE,  see  EAT. 

EVE.seeEAVE.  ^ 

EUM,  see  UME.  *" 

EW. 
Blew,  chew,  dew,  brew,  drew,  flew,  few,  grew,  new,  knew,  hew,   Few. 
mew,  view,  threw,  yew,  crew,  slew,  anew,  askew,  bedew,  eschew,  renew 
review,  withdrew,  screw,  interview,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  blew,  clue,  due, 
cne,  glile,  hue,  rue,  sue,  true,  accrue,  ensue,  endue,  imbue,  imbrue,  pursue, 
subdue,  adieu,  purlieu,  perdue,  residue,  avenue,  revenue,  rp.tinnp 
EWD,  see  EUD. 
EWN,  see  UNE. 
EX. 
Sex,  vex,  annex,  convex,  complex,  perplex,  circumflex,  a7id  the  plurals 
of  nouns  and  third  persons  singular  of  verbs  in  eck,  ^-t  checks,  he  checks, 
&c.    Allowable  rhymes,  ax,  wax,  &c.,  and  tin  plurals  oj  nouns  and  thira 
perions  singvlar  of  verbs  in  ake,  ack,  eak,  eke,ique,  ike,  &c.,  breaKs,  rakes, 
ne  takes,  he  breaks  racks,  he  ekes,  pikes,  he  likes,  he  pipes,  &t. 

22* 


258  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITIOlf. 

EXT. 

Next,  pretext,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ex,  at  vexed, 
»ernlexed,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  the  preterits  ami  participles  of  verbs  %n 
ut,  as  waxed,  &c.  _  ,  ^ 

EY,  see  AY. 

IB. 
Bib,  crib,  squib,  drib,  glib,  nib,  rib.    Allowable  rhymes,  bribe,  tribe,  &o 

IBE. 
Bribe,  tribe,  scribe,  ascribe,  describe,  superscribe,  prescribe,  proscribe, 
snbscribe,  transcribe,  inscribe.    Allowable  rhymes,  bib,  crib,  &c. 

ICPL 
Ice,  dice,  mice,  nice,  price,  rice,  spice,  slice,  thrice,  trice,  adrice,  entice 
vice,  device.  Perfect  rhymes^  the  nouns,  rise,  concise,  precise,  paradise, 
&c.  Allowable  rhymes  miss,  kiss,  hiss,  artifice,  avarice,  cockatrice,  bene 
fice,  cicatrice,  edifice,  orifice,  prejudice,  precipice,  sacrifice,  &c.,  piece, 
fleece,  &c. 

ICH,  see  ITCH. 

ICK. 
Brick,  sick,  chick,  kick,  lick,  nick,  pick,  quick,  stick,  thick,  trick,  arith 
metic,  asthmatic,  choleric,  catholic,  phlegmatic,  heretic,  rhetoric,  schismat- 
ic, splenetic,  lunatic,  asteric,  poUtic,  empiric.    Allowable  rhymes,  like,  pike, 
&c.,  weak,  speak,  &c. 

ICT. 
Strict,  addict,  afflict,  convict,  inflict,  contradict,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes^  tJte 
preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ick,  as  licked,  kicked,  &c.     Allowable 
rhymes  thepreterits  arid  participles  of  verbs  in  ike,  eak,  05  liked,  leaked,  &c. 

ID. 
Bid,  chid,  hid,  kid,  lid,  slid,  rid,  bestrid,  pyramid,  forbid.    AllowabU 
rhymes,  bide,  chide,  parricide,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  the 
verbs  in  y  or  ie,  as  died,  replied,  &c.,  lead,  bead,  mead,  deed,  need.  &c., 
and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ee,  as  freed,  agreed,  &c. 

IDE. 
Bide,  chide,  hide,  glide,  pride,  ride,  slide,  side,  stride,  tide,  wide,  bride, 
abide,  guide,  aside,  astride,  beside,  bestride,  betide,  confide,  decide,  deride, 
divide,  preside,  provide,  subside,  misguide,  subdivide,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes, 
the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  iii  ie  and  y,  as  died,  replied,  &c.,  atiA 
the  participle  sighed.    Allowable  rhymes,  bead,  mead,  &c.,  bid,  hid,  &c. 

IDES. 
Ides,   besides.      Perfect  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  norms  and  third  persona 
aingiUar  of  verbs  t7i  ide,  as  tides,  ho  rides.     Allowable  rhymes,  tJie  plurals 
of  nouns  and  third  persons  singular  of  verbs   in  ead,  id,    as   beads,  he 
leads,  &c.,  kids,  he  bids,  &c. 

IDGE. 
Bridge,  ridge,  abridge,  &,o. 

IDST. 
Midst,   amidst,  &c.     Perfect   rhymes   the  second  pet  sort  smgnlar  of  the 
present  te7K%e  of  verbs  in  id,  as  thou  biddest,  thou  hid dest,  &c.     Allowable 
rhymes,  the  second  persons  sing-ular  of  the  present  tense  of  verba  in  ide, 
at  thou  hiddest,  thou  readcst,  &c. 

IE  or  Y. 


By,  buy,  cry,  die,  dry,  eye,  fly,  .Vy,  fie,  hie,  lie,  pie,  ply,  pry,  rye,  shy, 
sly,  spry,  sky,  sty,  tie,  try,  vie,  why,  ally,  apply,  awry,  bely,  comply,  decry, 
defy,  descry,  deny,  imply,  espy,  outvie,  outfly,  rely,  reply,  supply,  untie, 


amplify,  beautify,  ccrtifv,  crucifv,  deify,  dignifv,  edify,  falsity,  fortify, 
gratify,  glorify,  indemnify,  justify,  magnifv,  modifv,  mollify,  mortify, 
pacify,   p«trify    punfy,  putrify,  qunlifv,  ratify,  rectify,  sanctify,  satisfy 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  259 

Bcanfy,  signify,  specify,  stupify,  terrify,  testify,  verify,  villify,  vitrify,  vivify 
prophesy.  Perfect  rhymes^  high,  nigh,  sigh,  thigh.  Allowable  rhymes^  bee, 
she,  tea,'  sea,  &c.,  pleurisy,  chemistry,  academy,  apostasy,  conspiracy,  con- 
federacy, ecstasy,  democracy,  embassy,  fallacy,  legacy,  supremacy,  lunacy, 
privacy,  piracy,  malady,  remedy,  tragedy,  comedy,  cosmography,  geogra- 
phy, geometry,  &c.,  elegy,  certainty,  sovereignty,  loyalty,  disloyalty, 
penalty,  casualty,  ribaldry,  chivalry,  infamy,  constancy,  fealty,  cavalry, 
bigamy,  polygamy,  vacancy,  inconstancy,  infancy,  company,  accompany, 
dittany,  tyranny,  villany,  anarchy,  monarchy,  lethargy,  incendiary,  infirm- 
ary, library,  salary,  sanctuary,  votary,  auxiliary,  contrary,  diary,  granary, 
rosemary,  urgency,  infantry,  knavery,  livery,  recovery,  robbery,  novelty 
antipathy,  apathy,  sympathy,  idolatry,  galaxy,  husbandry,  cruelty,  enemy 
blasphemy,  prophecy,  clemency,  decency,  inclemency,  emergency,  regency, 
progeny,  energy,  poverty,  liberty,  property,  adulter}--,  artery,  artillery,  bat- 
tery, beggary,  bribery,  bravery,  delivery,  drudgery,  flattery,  gallery, 
imagery,  lottery,  misery,  mystery,  nursery,  raillery,  slavery,  sorcery, 
treachery,  discovery,  tapestry,  majesty,  modesty,  immodesty,  honesty,  dis-. 
honesty,  courtesy,  heresy,  poesy,  poetry,  secresy,  leprosy,  perfidy,  subsidy, 
drapery,  symmetry,  drollery,  prodigy,  policy,  mutiny,  destiny,  scrutiny 
nypocrisy,  family,  ability,  activity,  avidity,  assiduity,  civility,  community, 
concavity,  consanguinity,  conformity,  congruity,  diuturnity,  facility,  fal- 
sity, familiarity,  formality,  generosity,  gratuity,  humidity,  absurity,  activ- 
ity, adversity,  afl'ability,  affinity,  agility,  alacrity,  ambiguity,  animosity, 
antiquity,  austerity,  authority,  brevity,  calamity,  capacity,  captivity, 
charity,  chastity,  civility,  credulity,  curiosity,  finery,  declivity,  deformity, 
duty,  dexterity,  dignity,  disparity,  diversity^  divinity,  enmity,  enormity, 
equality,  equanimity,  equity,  eternity,  extremity,  fatality,  felicity,  fertility, 
fidelity,  frugality,  futurity,  gravity,  hostility,  humanity,  humility,  imman 
ity,  immaturity,  immensity,  immorality,  immortality,  immunity,  immuta 
bility,  impartiality,  impossibility,  impetuosity,  improbity,  inanity,  inca- 
pacity, incivility,  incongruity,  ine(^uality,  indemnity,  infinity,  inflexibility, 
instability,  invalidity,  jollity,  lenity,  lubricity,  magnanim'ity,  majority, 
mediocrity,  minority,  mutability,  nicety,  perversity,  perplexity,  perspicuity, 
prosperity,  privity,  probalility,  probity,  propensity,  rarity,  rapidity,  saga 
city,  sanctity,  sensibility,  sensuality,  sohdity,  temerity,  timidity,  tranquil 
ity,  virginity,  visibihty,  university,  trumpery,  apology,  genealogy,  ety 
mology,  simony,  symphony,  soliloquy,  allegory,  armory,  factory,  pillory, 
faculty,  treasury,  usury,  augury,  importunity,  impunity,  impurity,  inaccu- 
curacy,  inability,  incredulity,  indignity,  infidelity,  infirmity,  iniquity,  in- 
tegrity, laity,  liberality,  malignity,  maturity,  morality,  mortality,  nativity, 
necessity,  neutrality,  nobility,  obscurity,  opportunity,  partiality,  perpet- 
uity, prosperity,  priority,  prodigality,  purity,  quality,  quantity,  scarcity, 
security,  severity,  simplicity,  sincerity,  solemnity,  sterility,  stupidity. 
Trinity,  vacuity,  validity,  vanity,  vivacity,  unanimity,  uniformity,  unity, 
anxiety,  gaiety,  impiety,  piety,  satiety,  sobriety,  society,  variety,  customary, 
melody,  philosophy,  astronomy,  anatomy,  colony,  gluttony,  hannony,  agony, 
gallantry,  canopy,  history,  memory,  victory,  calumny,  inj'ury,  luxury 
penury,  perj'ury,  usury,  industry. 

lECE,  see  EASE. 
lEF. 

Grief,  chief,  fief,  thief,  brief,  belief,  relief,  &c.    Fetfect  >^hym^»,  reef,  beef, 
fire.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  leaf,  sheaf,  &c. 

lEGE. 

LiegCj  v.t^,  oblige,  disoblige,  asseige,  besiege. 
TELD. 

Field,  yield,  shield,  wield,  afield.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  tJi*  pretmts  <m» 
participles  of  vvrbs  in  eal,  as  healed,  repealed,  &c. 


260  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITIOH. 

lEN,  see  EEN. 

lEND,  SCO  END. 

lERCE,  see  ERSE. 

lEST,  see  EAST. 

lEVE,  see  EAVE. 

IFE. 

Rife,  fife,  knife,  wife,  strife,  life.    Allowable  rhymes^  cliff,  akifi;  stiff,  whiff. 

IFF,  see  IFE. 
IFT. 
Gift,  drift,  shift,  lift,  rift,  sift,  thrift,  adrift,  &c.,  and  tht  preterits  and 
participles  of  verbs  in  iff,  a*  whiffed,  &c. 

IG. 
Big,  dig,  gig,  fig,  pig,  rig,  sprig,  twig,  swig.    AOowaUe  rhynus^  lea||rue. 
teague,  fatigue,  &c. 

IGE,  see  lEGE. 

IGH,  see  IE. 

IGHT,  see  ITE. 

IGN,  see  INE. 

IGXJE.  see  EAGUE. 

IKE. 

Dike,  like,  pike,  spike,  strike,  alike,  dislike,  oblique.    Allowable  rh/mes^ 

leak,  speak,  antique,  &c.,  lick,  pick,  &c. 

ILL. 
Bill,  chill,  fill,  drill,  gill,  hill,  m,  kill,  mill,  pill,  quill,  rill,  shrill,  fill,  skilly 
spill,  still,  swill,  thrill,  till,  trill,  will,  distil,  tulful,  mstil,  codicil,  daffodil, 
utensil.  Perfect  rhymes,  all  words  endlTig  in  ile,  unth  the  accent  on  ths 
atUepentdtiinate  syllable,  as  volni  ile,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  byle,  chyle, 
file,  feel,  reel,  &c.,  meal,  peal,  seal,  &c.,  and  words  in  ble,  Juwing  th»  ac 
cent  on  the  antepenultimate,  as  suitable,  &c. 

ILD. 
Child,  mild,  wild,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits  ajid  participles  of 
verbs  of  one  syllables,  in  ile,  or  of  more  syllables,  provided  the  accent  it 
on  the  last,  as  piled,  reviled,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  the  preterits  and^ar 
ticiples  of  verbs  in  ill,  as  filled,  willed,  &c.,  in  oil,  as  oiled,  boiled,  foiled. 
&c. 

ILD. 
Gild,  build,  rebuild,  &c.     Perfect  rhymes,  the  pretents  and  participles  oj 
verbs  in  illed,  as  filled,  willed,  &c.     Allowable  rhymes,  cliild,  mild,  and  theu 
allowable  rhymes,  which  see. 

ILE. 
Bile,  chyle,  file,  guile,  isle,  mile,  pile,  smile,  stile,  style,  tile,  vile,  while 
awhile,  compile,  revile,  defile,  exile,  erewhile,  reconcile,  begmle.    Allow 
able  rhymes,  oil,  boil,  &c.,  bill,  fill,  &c. 

ILK. 
Milk,  Bilk,  bUk,  &o. 

ILT. 

Gilt,  jilt,  built,  quilt^^guilt,  hilt,  spilt,  stilt,  tilt 

ILTH. 
FUth,  tilth,  &c. 

IM. 
Brim,  dim,  grim,  him,  rim.  skim,  slim,  trim,  wt  im,  prim.   Perfect  rhymes. 
limb,  hymn,  hmn.    Allowable  rhymes,  lime,  tune,  climb,  &c  ,  team,  gleam, 
fco. 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  261 

1MB,  see  IM. 
IME. 
Chime,  time,  ^ime,  climb,  clime,  crime,  prime,  mime,  rhyme,  slime^ 
thyme,  lime,  sublime.    Allowable  rhymes,  brim,  dim,  maritime,  &;c. 

IMES. 
Betimes,  sometimes,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  thephtrals  of  nouns  and  third 
persons  stiignlar,  present  tense,  of  verbs  in  ime,  as  chimes,  he  rhymes,  &c. 
Allowable  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons  singular,  present 
tense,jof  verbs  in  ea'n  and  im,  as  dreams,  brims,  he  swims,  &c. 
IMN,  see  IM. 
IMP. 
,     Imp,  pimp,  limp,  gimp. 

IMPSE. 
Glimpse.   Rhymes,  the  plurals  ofnoztns  and  third  persons  present  of  verbs 
in  imp,  as  imps,  he  limps,  &c. 

IN. 
Chin,  din,  fin,  gin,  grin,  in,  inn,  kin,  pin,  shin,  sin,  spin,  skin,  thin,  tin, 
win,  within,  assassin,  javelin,  begin.    Allowable  rhymes,  chine,  dine,  &c.; 
lean,  bean,  &c.,  machine,  magazine,  &c. 

INCE. 
Mince,  prince,  since,  quince,  rince,  wince,  convince,  evince. 

INCH. 
Clinch,  finch,  winch,  pinch,  inch. 

INCT 
Instinct,  distinct,  extinct,  precinct,  succinct,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  an/i 
participles  af  verbs  in  ink,  as  linked,  pinked,  &c 

IND. 
Bind,  find,  mind,  blind,  hind,  kind,  grind,  rind,  wind,  behind,  unkind,  re 
mind,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ine,  as  refined.  Allow- 
able rhymes,  rescind,  prescind,  a7td  the  noun  wind,  as  it  is  frcqtiently  pro 
nounced,  also  thi  participles  of  verbs  in  oin,  adjoined. 

INE. 
Dine,  brine,  mine,  chine,  fine,  line,  nine,  pine,  shine,  shrine,  kine,  thine, 
trine,  twine,  vine,  wine,  whine,  combine,  confijie,  decline,  define,  incline, 
inshrine,  intwine,  opine,  calcine,  recline,  refine,  repine,  superfine,  interline, 
countermme,  undermine,  supine,  concubine,  porcupine,  divine.  Perfect 
rhymes,  sign,  assign,  consign,  design,  «Scc.  Allowable  rhymes,  bin,  thin,  tin, 
origin,  Join,  loin,  &c.,  and  polysyllables  ending  in  ine,  pronou/nced  in,  as 
masculme,  feminine,  discipline,  libertine,  heroine,  &c. 

ING. 
Bring,  sing,  cling,  fling,  king,  ring,  sling,  spring,  sting,  string,  swing,  wing, 
wring,  tning,  &c.,  and  the  participtes  of  the  present  tense  in  ing,  vfith  the 
accent  on  the  antepenultimate,  as  recoverirvg,  altering,  &c. 

INGE. 

Cringe,  fringe,  hinge,  singe,  springe,  swinge,  tinge,  twinge,  infringe. 

INK. 
Ink,  think,  wink,  drink,  blink,  brink,  chink,  clink,  link,  pink,  shrmi, 
rink,  slink,  stink,  bethink,  forethink. 

INT. 
Dint,  mint,  hint,  flint,  lint  print,  squint,  asquint,  imprint. 

IP. 
Chip,  lip,  hip,  clip,  dip,  drip,  lip,  nip,  sip,  rip,  scrip,  ship,  skip,  slip,  snip, 
strip,  tip,  trip,  whip,  equip,  eldership,  fellowship,  workmanship,  rivalship, 
and  all  words  in  snip,  with  the  accent  on  the  antepenultimate.    Allowame 
"hymes,  wipei  gripe,  &c.,  leap,  heap,  &c. 


262  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   CCMP08ITI0N. 

IPE. 

Gripe,  pipe,  ripe,  snipe,  type,  stripe,  wipe,  archetype,  prototype  ALtio 
aUe  tUy/nes,  chip,  lip,  workmanship,  &;c. 

IPSE. 

Eclipse.  RJiymes,tfte  plurals  of  nouns  aiid  third  persons  singular,  pre^ 
tent  tetise,  in  ip,  as  lips,  strips,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  nouns 
and  third  persons  singtdar,  present  tense,  of  verbs  iw  ipe,  as  gripes,  wipes. 

IR,  see  UR. 

IRCH,  see  URCH, 

IRD,  see  URD. 

IRE. 
Fire,  dire,  hire,  ire,  lyre,  mire,  quire,  sire,  spire,  squire,  hire,  wire,  tu-e 
attire,  acquire,  admire,  aspire,  conspire,  desire,  inquire,  entire,  expire,  in 
spire,  require,  retire,  transpire.  Tyre.  Perfect  rhymes,  friar,  liar,  brier,  and 
nottns  formed  from  verbs  ending  in  ie  or  y,  as  crier,  dier,  as  also  tlie  cottv- 
parative  of  adjectives  of  tJie  same  sounding  terminations,  as  nigher,  shier, 
&c. 

IRGE,  see  ERGE. 
IRL. 
Girl,  whkl,  twirl.     Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  curl,  furl,  churl,  &c. 

IRM. 
Firm,  affirm,  confirm,  infirm.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  worm,  term,  &c 

IRST,  see  URST. 
IRT,  see  URT. 
IRTH. 
Birth,  mirth.    Perfect  rhymes,  earth,  dearth,  whieh  see. 

ISS. 
Bliss,  miss,  hiss,  kiss,  this,  abyss,  amiss,  submiss,  dismiss,  remiss.  AUote 
able  rhymes,  mice,  spice,  &c.,  peace,  lease,  &c. 

IS,  pronounced  like  IZ. 
Is,  his,  whiz. 

ISE,  see  ICE  and  IZE. 
ISH. 
Dish,  wish,  fish,  cnish,  pish. 

ISK. 
Brisk,  frisk,  disk,  risk,  whisk,  basilisk,  tamarisk. 

ISP. 
Crisp,  wisp,  lisp. 

1ST. 
Fist,  list,  mist,  twist,  wnst,  assist,  consist,  desist,  exist,  insist,  persist,  ro 
sist,  subsist,  alchemist,  nniethvst,  anatomist,  antagonist,  annalist,  evangelist, 
eucharist,  exorcist,  herbalist,  liumorist,  oculist,  organist,  satirist,  &c.,  a7td 
tke  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  iss,  as  missed,  hissed,  &c.  Allowable 
'Hymts,  tlie  prettrits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ice,  as  spiced,  sliced,  &c. 

IT. 
Bit,  cit,  hit,  fit,  grit,  flit,  knit,  nit,  pit,  quit,  sit,  split,  twit,  wit,  whit,  writ^ 
admit,  acquit,  commit,  emit,  omit,  outwit,  permit,  remit,  submit,  transmit, 
refit,  benefit,  perquisite.    Allowabla  rhymes,  beat,  heat,  &c.,  bite,  mite 
light,  &o. 

ITCH  and  HITCH. 
Ditch,  pitch,  rich,  which,  fitch,  bitch,  flitch,  hitch,  itch,  stitch,  switch 
twitch,  witch,  bewitch,  nich,  enrich. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  263 

ITE  and  IGHT. 
liite,  cite,  kite,  bite,  mite,  quite,  rite,  smite,  spite,  trite,  white,  write,  con 
trite,  disunite,  despite,  indite,  invite,  excite,  incite,  polite,  requite,  recite 
unite,  reunite,  aconite,  appetite,  parasite,  proselyte,  expedite.  Perfect 
rkymes,  blight,  benight,  bright,  fight,  flight,  fright,  height,  light,  knight, 
night,  might,  plight,  right,  tight,  slight,  sight,  spright,  wight,  afinght,  alight, 
aright,  foresight,  delight,  despite,  unsight,  upright,  benight,  bedight,  over 
sight. '  Allowable  rhymes^  eight,  height,  weight,  &c.,  bit,  hit,  &c.,  favorite, 
hypocrite,  infinite,  requisite,  opposite,  apposite,  exquisite,  &c. 

ITH. 
Pith,  smith,  frith. 

ITHE. 
Hithe,  blithe,  tithe,  scythe,  writhe,  lithe.    Allowable  rhyms^  with. 

IVE. 
Five,  dive,  alive,  gyve,  hive,  drive,  rive,  shrive,  strive,  thrive,  arrive,  con 
nive,  contrive,  deprive,  derive,  revive,  survive.  Allowable  thymes^  give, 
live,  sieve,  forgive,  outlive,  fugitive,  laxative,  narrative,  prerogative,  primi 
tive,  sensitive,  vegetive,  aflarmative,  alternative,  contemplative,  demonstra 
live,  diminutive,  distributive,  donative,  inquisitive,  lenitive,  negative,  per 
spective,  positive,  prepai'ative,  provocative,  purgative,  restorative. 

IX. 
Fix,  six,  flix,  mix,  aflSx,  infix,  prefix,  transfix,  intermix,  crucifix,  &c., 
wnd  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons  of  verbs  in  ick,  as  wicks,  licks. 
&c.    Allowable  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons  singtUar  of 
verbs  in  ike,  as  pikes,  likes,  &c. 

IXT. 
Betwixt.     Rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  m  ix,  as  fixed 
mixed,  &c. 

ISE  and  IZE. 
Prize,  wise,  rise,  size,  guise,  disguise,  advise,  authorize,  canonize,  chas 
tise,  civilize,  comprise,  criticise,  despise,  devise,  enterprise,  excise,  exercise, 
idolize,  immortalize,  premise,  revise,  signalize,  solemnize,  surprise,  surmise, 
suffice,  sacrifice,  sympathize,  tyrannize,  and  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third 
persons  singular,  present  tense,  of  verbs  ending  ifi  ie  or  y,  as  pies,  lies,  he 
repUes,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  miss,  hiss,  precipice,  &c. 
0,  see  00  and  OW. 
OACH. 
Broach,  croach,  poach,  abroach,  approach,  encroach,  reproach.    Perfect 
"^hyme,  loach.    Altowaitle  rhymes,  botch,  notch,  &c.,  mutch,  hutch,  &c 
*    OAD,  see  AUD  and  ODE. 
OAF,  see  OFF. 
OAK,  see  OKE. 
OAL,  see  OLE. 
0AM,  see  OME 
OAN,  see  ONE. 
OAP,  see  OPE. 
OAR,  see  ORE. 
OARD,  see  ORD. 
OAST,  see  OST. 
OAT,  see  GTE. 
OATH,  see  OTH. 
OB. 
Fob,  bob,  mob,  knob,  sob,  rob,  throb.    Perfect  rhyme*,  swab,  squao 
AJlouftUU  rhymes,  daub,  globo,  robe,  dub,  &c. 


264  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

OBE. 
Globe,  lobe,  probe,  robe,  conglob*,.    Allowable  rhymes,  fob,  mob,  &c.,  rub 
dub,  &c.,  daub,  &c. 

OGE,  see  OSE. 

OCK. 
Block,  lock,  cock,  clock,  crock,  dock,  frock,  flock,  knock,  mock,  rock, 
Bhock,  stock,  sock.     AUotoable  rhymes^  oak,  poke,  cloke,  &c.,  look,  took, 
&c.,  buck,  suck,  &c 

OCT. 
Concoct.    Rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ocfc,  as  blocked, 
locked,  &c.     Auowable  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  oak 
and  oke,  'Uf  croaKea,  bouKcd,  yoked,  &c. 

OD. 
Clod,  God,  rod',  sod,  trod,  nod,  plod,  odd,  rod,  shod.    Allowable  rhyme*, 
ode,  code,  moo»3.  &;t..,  und  tJte  preterits  and  participUs  of  verbs  in  ow,  as 
sowed,  did  s6w,  &c. 

ODE  and  OAD. 
Bode,  ode,  code,  mode,  rode,  abode,  corrode,  explode,  forebode,  commode, 
incommode,  episode,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  road,  toad,  goad,  load,  &c.,  and 
t/ie  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ow,  as  owed,  showed,  &c.    Allowable 
rhymes,  blood,  flood,  clod,  hod,  nod,  broad,  fraud,  &c.     See  OOD. 
OE,  see  OW. 
OFF  and  OUGH. 
Off",  scoif,  &c.    Perfec*  rhymes,  cough,  trough,  &c.    AUowabU  rkynu. 
oaf,  loaf,  &c.,  proof,  roof,  &c.    See  OOF. 

OFT. 
Oft,  croli,  ?oft.  aloft,  &c.,  aTxd  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  tn  off 
snd  off,  as  ufi",  scoiFed,  &c. 

OG. 
Hog,  bog,  cog,  dofe,  clog,  fog,  Irog,  log,  jog,  &c.     Perfect  rhymes,  dialogue, 
epilogue,  agog,  synagogue,  catalogue,  pedagogue.    Allowable  rhymes,  rogue, 
rogue,  &c 

OGUE. 
Rogue,  vogue,  prorogue,  collogue,  disembogue.    Allowable  rhymes^  bog, 
log,  dialogue,  &c. 

OICE. 
Choice,  voice,  rejoice.    Allowable  rhymes,  nice,  vice,  rice,  &c. 

OID. 
Void,  avoia,  devoid,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and  veutieipUs  ofverhs  tn  oy,  eu 
buoyed,  cloyed,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  hide,  bide,  ride,  &c. 

OIL. 
Oil,  boil,  coil,  moil,  soil,  spoil,  toil,  despoil,  embroil,  recoil,  turmoil,  disem 
broil.    Allowable  rhymes,  isle,  while,  tile,  &c. 

OIN. 
Coin,  ioin,  subjoin,  groan,  loin,  adjoin,  conjoin,  disjoin,  enjoin,,parloin,  m 
join.    Allowable  rhymes^  whine,  wine,  fine,  &c.    See  INE. 

DINT. 
Oint,  joint,  point,  disjoint,  anoint,  appoint,  disappoint,  counterpoint    M 
loteti/fle  rhyme,  pint. 

OISE. 
Poise,  noi«o.  counterpoise,  equipoise,  &c.,  and  the  plurals  of  nouns,  and 
third  persons  si7t^t/ar,  presetU  tejtse,  of  verbs  in  oy,  as  boys,  olovs,  &c.     Al 
l»wable  rhymA*,  wise,  size,  prize,  and  the  plurals  of  nouns,  and  third  persons 
nm^dar,  present  t$n»^,  of  verbs  in  ie  or  v,  flw  pies,  tries,  &c. 


IIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  265 

OIST. 
Hoist,  moist,  foist.    Perfect  rhymes^  the  preterits  and  participles  ofv&thatn 
©ice,  a«  rejoiced.    Allowable  rhymes^  the  preterits  aiui participles  of  verbs  in 
ice,  as  spiced. 

OIT. 
Coit,  exploit,  adroit,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes^  white,  light,  might,  sight, 
nite,  &c. 

OKE. 
Broke,  choke,  smoke,  spoke,  stroke,  yoke,  bespoke,  invoke,  provoke,  re 
voke,  &c.     Perfect  rhymes,  choak,  cloak,  oak,   soak,    stroak.     AUowa 
"de  rhymes,  stock,  mock,  &c.,  buck,  luck,  &c.,  talk,  walk,  &c.,  look,  book 
fee.    SeeOCKand  OOK. 

OL. 
Loll,  doll,  droll,  extol,  capitol,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  aH,   ball,  &c.,  awl, 
bawl,  &c.,  nole,  mole,  &c.,  dull,  mull,  &c. 

OLD. 
Old,  bold,  cold,  gold,  hold,  mold,  scold,  sold,  told,  behold,  enfold,  unfold, 
uphold,  withhold,  foretold,  manifold,  marigold.    Perfect  rhymes,  preterits 
and  participles  of  verbs  in  oil,  owl,  ole,  a/nd  oal,  as  roUed,  cajoled,  foaled, 
bowled,  &c. 

OLE. 

Bole,  dole,  jole,  hole,  mole,  pole,  sole,  stole,  whole,  shole,  cajole,  condole, 

parole,  patrole,  pistole,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  coal,  foal,  goal,  soal,  bowl, 

droll,  prowl,  roll,  scroll,  toll,  troll,  control,  enroll,  &c.,  soul,  &c.,  to  roll,  &c. 

Allowable  rhymes,  gnll,  dull,  &c.,  bull,  full,  &c.,  loU,  doll,  &c.,  fool,  cool,  &c. 

OLIN. 
Stolen,  swollen. 

OLT. 
Bolt,  colt,  jolt,  holt,  dolt,  molt,  revolt,  thunderbolt    Allowable  rhymes, 
yault,  fault,  salt,  &c. 

OLVE. 
SoItc,  absolve,  resolve,  convolve,  involve,  devolve,  dissolve,  revolve. 
OM,  see  UM. 
OME. 
Lome^  dome,  home,  tome.    Perfect  rhymes,  foam,  roam,  comb.    AUowa 
He  rhymes,  dumb,  hum,  come,  bomb,  &c.,  troublesome,  &c.    See  OOM. 
0MB,  see  OOM. 
OMPT,  see  OUNT 
ON,  see  UN. 
ON. 
Don,  on,  con,  upon,  anon,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  gone,  undergone,  &o. 
AUowaMs  rhymes,  dun,  run,  won,  &c.,  own,  moan,  &c.,  lone,  bone,  &c. 
Amazon,  cinnamon,  comparison,  caparison,  garrison,  skeleton,  union,  juppon 

OND. 

Pond,  bond,  food,  beyond,  abscond,  correspond,  despond,  diamond,  vaga 

bond,  &c.,  arid  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  on,  im  donned,  conned. 

See.    AUowahle  rhymes,  the  preterits  arid  participles  of  verbs  in  one,  oan,  ana 

an,  as  stoned,  moaned,  stunned,  &c. 

ONCE,  see  UNCE. 

ONE. 

Prone,  bone,  drone,  throne,  alone,  stone,  tone,  lone,  zone,  atone,  enthrone 

dethrone,  postpone,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  grown,  flown,   disown,  thrown, 

sown,  own,  loan,  shown,  overthrown,  groan,  blown,  moan,  known.    Allow 

ail*  rhytnssf  dawn,  lawn,  &c.,  on,  oon,  &c.,  none,  bnn,  dun,  &c.,  moos 

23 


266  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

ONG. 
Long,  prong,  song,  thong,  strong,  throng,  wrong,  along,  belong,  prolong 
AlUnoaUe  rhymes,  bung,  among,  hung,  &c. 

ONGUE,  see  UNG. 
ONK,  see  UNK. 
ONSE. 
Sconce,  ensconce,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  once,  nwice,  askatmce,  &c. 

ONT. 
Font,    Perfect  rhyme,  want.    Allowable  rhymes,  front,  affront,  &c.,  coo 
front,  punt,  runt,  &c.,  the  abbreviated  negatives,  won't,  don't,  &c. 

00. 
Coo,  woo.     Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  shoe,  two,  too,  who,  &c.,  do,  ado,  undo, 
through,  you,  true,  blue,  flew,  strew,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  know,  blow 
go,  toe,  &c.     See  Direction  3. 
*  OOD. 

Brood,  mood,  food,  rood,  &c.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits  aTid 
farticiples  of  verbs  in  oo,  as  cooed,  wooed,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  wood, 
good,  hood,  stood,  withstood,  understood,  brotherhood,  livelihood,  likelihood, 
neighborhood,  widowhood,  &c.,  blood,  flood,  &c.,  feud,  illude,  habitude,  &c., 
the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ue,  and  ew,  as  brewed,  strewed,  &C., 
imbued,  subdued,  &c.,  bud,  mud,  &c.,  and  the  three  apostrophized  auxiiia 
ries.  would,  could,  shoiM,  pronounced  wou'd,  cou'd,  shou'd,  &c.,  ode,  code, 
ana  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ow,  as  crowed,  rowed,  &c.,  cUst 
nod,  hod,  &c. 

OOF. 
Hoof,  proof,  roof,  woof,  aloof,  disproof,  reproof,  behoof.    Allowable  rhymm 
hnff,  rnff,  rough,  enough,  &c.,  off,  scoff,  &c. 

OOK. 

Book,  brook,  cook,  crook,  hook,  look,  rook,  shook,  took,  mistook,  under 
took,  forsook,  betook.  Allowable  rhymes,  puke,  fluke,  &c,  duck,  luck,  &c., 
broke,  spoke,  &c. 

OOL. 

Cool,  fool,  pool,  school,  stool,  tool,  befool.  AUowaUe  rhymes,  pule,  rule, 
&c.,  dull,  gull,  &c.,  bull,  pull,  &c.,  pole,  hole,  &c. 

OOM. 
Gloom,  groom,  loom,  room,  spoom,  bloom,  doom,  &c.     Perfect  rhymts^ 
tomb,  entomb,  and  the  city  Rome.     Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  whom,  womb, 
&c.    Allowable  rhymes,  come,  drum,  &c.,  bomb,  thumb,  clomb,  &c.,  plume, 
spume,  &c.,  and  from,  home,  comb,  &c. 

OON. 
Boon,  soon,  moon,  noon,  spoon,  swoon,  buffoon,  lampoon,  poltroon.    Al 
lowable  rhymes,  tune,  prune,  *c.,  bun,  dun,  &c.,  ^ne,  oon,  &c.,  bone,  alone, 
&c.,  moan,  roan,  &c.    See  ONE. 

OOP. 
Loop,  poop,  scoop,  stoop,  troop,  droop,  whoop,  coop,  hoop,  &c.    Perfect 
rhymes,  soup,  gronj),  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  dupe,  up,  sup,  tup,  &c.,  cop, 
top,  &c.,  cope,  nope,  &c. 

OOR. 
Boor,  poor,  moor,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  tour,  amour,  paramour,  contour. 
Alhteaile  rhymes,  bore,  pore,  &c.,  pure,  sure,  &c.,  your,  pour,  &c.,  door 
floor,  &c.,  bur,  cur,  &c.,  sir,  stir,  &c. 

OOSE. 
Goose,  loose,  &c.     Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  the  tumns  deuce,  use,  &c.,  prfc 
fuse,  seduce.    Alhtpoble  rhymes,  dose,  jocose,  globose,   &&,  mos»,  tOBk- 
4o.,  U0,  pus,  thus,  &0.  • 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION  267 

OOT. 

Root,  boot,  coot,  hoot,  shoot.  Nearly  perfect  rhyme?,  suit,  fruit,  &c.,  lute, 
impute,  &c.  AUowMe  rhymes^  rote,  vote,  &c.,  goat,  coat,  &c.,  but,  hut, 
soot,  &c.,  foot,  put,  &c.,  hot,  got,  &c. 

OOTH. 
Booth,  sooth,  smooth.    Allowable  rhymes,  tooth,  youth,  sooth,  uncouth, 
forsooth,  &c.     Though  these  are  freqtient,  they  are  very  improper  rhymes^ 
the  th  in  one  class  being  flat,  amd  in  the  other  sharp, 

OOZE. 
Ooze,  nooze.  Perfect  rhyynes,  whose,  choose,  lose.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes, 
the  verbs,  to  use,  abuse,  &c.  AllorvaMe  rhymes,  doze,  hose,  &c.,  buzz  and 
does,  the  third  persons  singalar  o/"do,  with  the  plurcus  of  nouns,  and  third 
ver»yns  singidar,  present  tense,  of  verbs  in  ow,  0,  oe,  ew,  ne,  as  foes,  goes, 
throws,  rlews,  imbues,  flues,  &c. 

OP. 
Chop,  hop,  drop,  crop,  fop,  top,  prop,  flop,  shop,  slop,  sop,  stop,  swop, 
top,  underprop.    Allowable  rhymes,  cope,  trope,  hope,  &c.,  tup,  sup,  &c., 
coop,  &c. 

OPE. 
Sope,  hope,  cope,  mope,  grope,  pope,  rope,  scope,  slope,  tope,  trope,  aslope, 
elope,  interlope,  telescope,  heliotrope,  horoscope,  antelope,  &c.,  and  ope 
contracted  in  poetry  for  open.    Allowable  rhymes,  hoop,  coop,  &c.,  lop,  top 
&c.,  tup,  sup,  &c. 

OPT. 
Adopt  rhymes  perfectly  with  the  preterits  and  participles  of  vsrbs  in  op,  05 
nopped,  lopped,  ace.    Allowable  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs 
m  ope,  upe,  oop,  and  up,  as  coped,  duped,  hooped,  cupped,  &c. 

OR. 
Or,  for,  creditor,  coimsellor,  confessor,  competitor,  emperor,  ancestor,  am 
bassador,  progenitor,  conspirator,  successor,  conqueror,  governor,  abhor, 
metaphor,  bachelor,  senator,  &c.,  and  every  word  in  or,  having  the  accent 
9n  the  last,  or  last  syllable  but  two,  as  abhor,  orator,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes, 
bore,  tore,  &c.,  boar,  hoar,  &c.,  pure,  endure,  &c.,  pur,  demur,  &c.,  stir, 
sir,  &c. 

ORCH. 
Scorch,    torch,    &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  birch,    snurch,    church,    &c., 
porch,  &c. 

ORCE. 
Force,  divorce,  enforce,  perforce,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  corse,  coarse,  noarse, 
course,  discourse,  recourse,  intercourse,  source,  resource,  &c.    Allowable 
rhymes,  worse,  purse,  &c.,  horse,  endorse,  &c. 

ORD. 
Cord,  lord,  record,  accord,  abhorred.    Allowable  rhymes,  hoard,  board, 
aboard,  ford,  aflFord,  sword,  &c.,  word,  surd,  bird,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and 
vartidples  of  verbs  in  ore,  vx,  atid  ir,  as  bored,  incurred,  stirred,  &c. 

ORE. 
Bore,  core,  gore,  lore,  more,  ore,  pore,  score,  shore,  snore,  sore,  score, 
ewor9,  tore,  wore,  adore,  afore,  ashore,  deplore,  explore,  implore,  restore, 
forbore,  forswore,  heretofore,  hellebore,  sycamore.    Perfect  rhymes,  boai 

fore,  oar,  roar,  soar,  four,  door,  floor,  anid  o'er,  for  over.    AlXt  wable  rhymes, 
our,  sour,  &c.,  pow'r,ybr  power ;  snow'r,  for  shower,  &c.,  bur,  cur,  &c., 
poor,  your,  &c.,  abhor  orator,  senator,  &c.    See  OOR  and  OR. 

ORGE. 
Gorge,  disgorge,  regorge,  &c.     Allowable  rhymes,  forge,  urge,  dirge  &o. 

ORK. 
Ors,  cork,  fork,  stork,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  pork,  work. 


268  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

ORLD. 
World  rhyxiM  perfectly  with  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  uri 
as  hurled,  carled,  &c. 

ORM,  see  ARM. 
Form,  stomi,  conform,  deform,  inform,  perform,  reform,  misinform,  uni 
form,  multiform,  transform.    Allowable  rhymes,  form  {a  seat),  cmd  worm. 
ORN,  rhyming  with  HORN. 
Bom.  com,  mora,  horn,  scorn,  thorn,  adom,  suborn,  unicorn,  capricom. 
Allowable  rhymes,  the   participles  borne  {suffered),    shorn,  &c.,  the  verl 
moom,  the  nouns  uni;  turn,  &c. 

ORN,  rhyming  with  MORN. 
Bora,  shora,  tora,  wora,  lorn,  forlorn,  love-lorn,  sworn,  forswom,  ovar 
born,  forlorn.    Perfect  rhyme,  mourn.    Allowable  rhymes,  bora,  com,  &c., 
am,  turn,  &c. 

ORSE,  see  ORCE. 
Horse,  endorse,  unhorse.    Allowable  rhyrrus,  worse,  curse,  &c.,  remorae, 
coarse,  course,  corse,  &c. 

ORST,  see  URST. 
ORT,  see  ART. 
ORT,  rhyming  with  WART. 
Short,  sort,  exliort,  consort,  distort,  extort,  resort,  retort,  snort.    AUmo 
able  rhymes,  fort,  court,  port,  report,  &c.,  dirt,  shirt,  &c.,  wort,  hurt,  &c. 
ORT,  rhymmg  with  COURT. 
Fort,  port,  sport,  comport,  disport,  export,  import,  support,  transport,  re 
port.    Allowable  rhymes,  short,  sort,  &c.,  dirt,  hurt,  &c. 
ORTH. 
Forth,  fourth.    Allowable  rhymes,  north,  worth,  birth,  earth,  &c. 

OSE,  sounded  OCE. 
Close,  dose,  jocose.     Perfect  rhymes,  morose,  gross,  engross,  verbose. 
Allowable  rhymes,  moss,  cross,  &c.,  us,  thus,  &c. 

OSE,  sounded  OZE. 

Close,  dose,  hose,  pose,  chose,  ^lose,  froze,  nose,  prose,  those,  rose,  com- 
pose, depose,  disclose,  dispose,  discompose,  expose,  impose,  inclose,  inter- 
pose, oppose,  propose,  recompose,  repose,  suppose,  transpose,  arose,  pre- 
suppose, foreclose,  &c.,  and  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  apostrophized  preterit* 
and  particivles  of  verbs  iii  ow,  oe,  o,  &c.,  as  rows,  glows,  foes,  goes,  &o. 
AUowaUe  rhymes,  tlie  verbs  choose,  lose.  &c.,  and  the  plurals  of  nouns  and 
third  persons  singular  of  verbs  in  ow,  rhyming  with  now,  as  cows,  and  th* 
word  buzz. 

OST. 

Boss,  loss,  cross,  dross,  moss,  toss,  across,  emboss.  Allowable  rhymes,  the 
nouns  close,  dose,  jocose,  &c.,  and  us,  thus,  &o. 

OST. 

Cost,  frost,  lost,  accost,  &c.,  and  the  pretents  and  participles  of  words  in 
©S8,  as  mossed,  embossed.  &c.,  t/ie  vero  exhaust,  ajid  the  noun  holooaost. 
AUoivable  rhy7tus,gho&i,  host,  post,  compost,  most,  &c.,  coast,  boast,  toast, 
Sec.,  bust,  must,  &c.,  roost,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  008e, 
9$  loosed,  &c. 

OT,  SCO  AT. 

Clot,  cot,  blot,  got,  hot,  jot,  lot,  knot,  not,  plot,  pot,  scot,  shot,  sot,  spot, 
•pricot,  trot,  rot,  grot,  begot,  forgot,  allot,  besot,  complot,  counterplot.    Al- 
bwable  rhymes,  note,  vote,  &c.,  boat,  coat,  &c.,  but,  cut,  &c. 
OTCn. 

Botch,  no*.ch,  &c.  Perfect  rhyme,  watch.  ARowaUe  rhymes,  much 
tuch,  &c. 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  'Zb9 

OTK. 
Note,  vote,  mote,  quote,  rote,   wrote,  smote,  denote,  promote,   remote, 
di3vote,  anecdote,  antidote,  &c.      Perfect  rhymes,  boat,  coat,  bloat,  doat, 
float,  gloat,  goat,  oat,  overfloat,  afloat,  throat,  moat.    Allowable    rhymes 
bout,  flout,  &c.,  hot,  cot,  &c.,  but,  cut,  &c.,  boot,  hoot,  &c. 

OTH. 

Broth,  cloth,  froth,  moth,  troth,  betroth.    Perfect  rhyme,  wrath.    Allow 

able  rhymes,  both,  loth,  sloth,  oath,  growth,  &c.,  forsooth,  the  noun  mouth. 

and  the  solemn  auxiliary  doth,  to  which  some  poets  add  loathe,  clothe,  but  J 

thinJc  tmpioperly.     See  0 OTH. 

OU,  see  00  and  OW. 
OUBT,  see  OUT. 

OUCH. 
Couch,  pouch,  vouch,  slouch,  avouch,  crouch.    Allowable  rhymes,  much, 
nch,  &c.,  coach,  roach,  &c. 

OUD. 
Shroud,  cloud,  proud,  loud,  aloud,  croud,  overshroud,  &,c.,  and  the  preterits 
and  paHidples  of  verbs  in  ow,  as  he  bowed,  vowed,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes, 
the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ow,  as  owed,  flowed,  &c.,  blood,  flood, 
bud,  much,  &c. 

OVE. 
Wove,  inwove,  interwove,  alcove,  clove,  grove,  rove,  stove,  strove,  throve, 
drove.    Allowable  rhymes,  dove,  love,  shove,  glove,  above,  &c.,  move,  be- 
hove, approve,  disprove,  disapprove,  improve,  groove,  prove,  reprove,  &c. 
OUGH,  see  OFF,  OW,  and  UFF. 

OUGHT. 

Bought,  thought,  ought,  brought,  forethought,  fought,  nought,  sought, 
vrrought,  besought,  bethought,  methonght,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  aught, 
naught,  caught,  taught,  &c.,  sometimes  draught.  Allmoable  rhymes,  not, 
yacht,  &c.,  note,  vote,  &c.,  butt,  hut,  &c.,  hoot,  root,  &c. 

OUL,  see  OLE  and  OWL. 

OULD. 
Mould.    Perfect  rhymes,  fold,  old,  cold,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  andpartict 
pies  of  verbs  in  owl,  ol,  and  ole,  as  bowled,  tolled,  cajoled,  &c.    Allowable 
rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  uU,  as  gulled,  pulled,  &c. 

OUNCE. 
Bounce,  flounce,  renounce,  pounce,  ounce,  denounce,  pronounce. 

OUND. 
Bound,  found,  mound,  ground,  hound,  pound,  round,  sound,  wound, 
abound,  aground,  around,  confound,  compound,  expound,  profound,  re 
bound^  redound,  resound,  propound,  surround,  occ,  and  the  preterits  and 
varticxples  of  the  verbs  in  own,  as  frovnied,  renowned,  &c.  Allowable  rhym,es, 
the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  one,  oan,  aTtd  nn,  as  toned,  moaned, 
sunned,  &c.,  consequently  fund,  refund,  &c.,  and  wound  {a  hurt)  pron 
woond. 

OUMG,  see  UNG. 
OUNT. 
Count,  mount,  fount,  amount,  dismomit,  remount,  surmount,  account, 
iiscount,  miscount.    Allowable  rhymes,  want,  font,  don't,  wont,  &c. 
OUP,  see  OOP. 
OUK. 
Hour,  lour,  sour,  our,  scour,  deflour,  devour,  %cc.,  rhymes  perfectly  vrith 
bower,  cower,  flower  power,  shower,  tower,  &c.,  pronounced  bow'r,  tow'r 
23* 


270  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

&«',.    Allowable  rhymes,  bore,  more,  roar,  pour,  tour,  moor,  poor,  &c.,  pure 
sure,  &c.,  sir,  stir,  bur,  cur,  &c. 

OURGE,  see  URGE. 

OURNE,  see  CRN  and  URN. 
OURS. 
Ours  rhymes  perfectly  with  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons  present 
of  verbs  in  our,  and  ower,  as  hours,  scours,  deflours,  bowers,  showers,  &c. 
Allowable  rhymes  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons  present  of  verbs  in 
oor  and  ure,  as  boors,  moors,  &c.,  cures,  endures,  &c. 
OURS. 
Yours  rhymes  perfectly  vrith  the  plurals  of  nouns,  and  third  persons  present 
of  verbs  in  ure,  as  cures,  endures,  &c.     Allowable  rhyme,  ours,  and  its 
perfect  rhymes  and  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons  present  of  verbs  tn 
oor,  ore,  and  ur,  as  boors,  moors,  &c.,  shores,  pores,  &c.,  burs,  slurs,  stirs, 
Ice 

OURSE,  see  ORCE. 

OURT,  see  ORT. 

OURTH,  see  ORTH. 

OUS,  see  US. 

OUS,  pronounced  OUCE. 

House,  mouse,  chouse,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  the  nouns  close,  dose,  jo- 

cohe,  &c.,  deuce,  use,  produce,   &c.,  us,  thus,  &c.,  moose,  and  the  noun 

noose. 

OUSE,  pron.  OUZE,  see  OWZE. 
OUT. 
Bout,  stout,  out,  clout,  pout,  gout,  grout,  rout,  scout,  shout,  snout,  spout, 
stout,  sprout,  trout,  about,  devout,  without,  throughout,  &c.,  rhymes  per 
fectly  with  doubt,  redoubt,  misdoubt,  drought,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  note, 
vote,  &c.,  boat,  coat,  &c.,  lute,  suit,  &c.,  got,  not,  &c.,  nut,  shut,  hoot, 
boot,  &c. 

OUTH. 
Mouth,  south,  wlien  nouns  have  the  th  sJuirp.     TJie  .verbs  to  mouth,  to 
south,  &c.,  m4iy  aUoxoably  rhyme  with  booth,  smooth,  &c.,  which  tee. 
OW,  sounded  OU. 
Now,  bow.  how,  mow,  cow,  brow,  plow,  sow,  vow,  prow,  avow,  allow, 
disallow,  endow,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  bough,  plough,  slough  {mire),  &c., 
thoa.    Allowable  rhymes,  go,  no,  blow,  sow,  &c. 
OW,  sounded  OWE. 
Blow,  stow,  crow,  bow,  flow,  glow,  grow,  know,  low,  mow,  row,  show, 
sow,  strow,  stow,  slow,  snow,  throw,  trow,  below,  bestow,  foreknow,  out 
grow,  overgrow,  overflow,  overthrow,  reflow,  foreshow,  &c.   Perfect  rhymes, 
go,  no,  toe,  foe,  owe,  wo,  oh,  so,  lo,  though,  hoc,  ho.  ago,  forego,  unoergo, 
dough,  loe,  ploe,  atid  the  verb  to  pew  (wUh  the  neeclle.)    AUowalU  rhymes, 
now,  cow,  vow,  do,  &c.     See  the  last  artieU. 
OWL,  see  OLE. 
Cowl,  growl,  owl,  fowl,  howl,  prowl,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  scoul,  foul,  &c. 
Alhwaile  rhymes,  bowl,  soul,  hoal,  goal,  &c.,  dull,  gull,  &c. 
OWN,  see  ONE. 
Brown,  town,  clown,  crown,  down,  drown,  frown,  grown,  adown,  renown, 
embrown,  &c.     Pcrfrct  rhyme,  nonn.    Allowable  rhym^,  tone,  hone,  monn, 
fiwn,  and  tlie  participles,  tluxjwn,  shown,  blown,  &c. 
OWSE,  see  OUSE. 
Blowse.    Perfect  rhymes,  browse,  trouse,  rouse,  spouse,  carouse,  souse, 
MkDQQse.  tA*  verb*  to  house,  mouse,  &c.,  and  tlie  plurals  of  nouns  and  thxrti 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION,  271 

frirsotij  preset  U  tense  of  verbs  m  ow,  o^  brows,  allows,  &c.  Alloivable  rhymes , 
i/se,  those,  to  dose,  &c. 

OX. 
Ox,  box,  fox,'  equinox,  orthodox,  heterodox,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes^  the 
pkcrals  of  nouns  aim  third  persons  present  of  verbs  in  ock,  as  locks,  stocks. 
&c.     AUotoable  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  nonns,  and  third  persons  present  of 
verbs  m.oke,  oak,  ajid  uck,  as  strokes,  oaks,  cloaks,  sucks,  &c. 

OY. 
Boy,  buoy,  coy,  employ,  cloy,  joy,  toy,  alloy,  annoy,  convoy,  decoy,  des 
troy,  enjoy,  employ. 

OZE,  see  OSE. 
UB. 
Cub    cluo,  dub,  chub,  drub,  grub,  rub,  snub,  shrub,  tub.     AUotoabU 
rhymes,  cube,  tube,  &c.,  cob,  rob,  &c. 

UBE. 
Cube,  tube.    Allowable  rhymes,  club,  cub,  &c. 

UCE. 
Truce,  sluce,  spruce,  deuce,  conduce,  deduce,  induce,  introduce,  produce, 
seduce,  traduce,  juice,  reduce,  &c.,  rhymes  perfectly  with  the  nonns  use, 
abuse,  profuse,  abstruse,  disuse,  excuse,  misuse,  obtuse,  recluse. 
UGH,  see  UTCH. 
UCK. 
Buck,  luck,  pluck,  suck,  struck,  tuck,  truck,  duck.    AUotvable  rhymes 
puke,  duke,  &c.,  look,  took,  &c. 

UCT. 
Conduct^  deduct,  instruct,  abstract,  aqueduct.  Perfect  rhymes,  tJie preterits 
and  participles  of  verbs  in  uck,  as  ducked,  sucked,  &c.     Allowable  rhymes, 
the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  uke  omd  ook,  as  puked,  hooked,  &c- 

UD. 
Bud,  scud,  stud,  mud,  cud,  rhymes  perfectly  with  blood  and  flood.    Al 
lotoable  rhymes,  good,  hood,  &c.,  rood,  food,  &;c.,  beatitude,  latitude,  &c. 

UDE. 
Rude,  crude,  prude,  allude,  conclude,  delude,  elude,  exclude,  exude,  in 
elude,  intrude,  obtrude,  seclude,  altitude,  fortitude,  gratitude,  interlude, 
latitude,  londtude,  magnitude,  multitude,  solicitude,  solitude,  vicissitude, 
aptitude,  habitude,  ingratitude,  inaptitude,  lassitude,  plenitude,  prompt! 
itude,  servitude,  similitude,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  leud,  feud,  &c.,  and  t/ie 
preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ew,  as  stewed,  viewed,  &c,    AUotvable 
rhymes,  bud,  cud,  &c.,  good,  hood,  blood,  flood,  &c. 
UDGE. 
Judge,  drudge,  grudge,  trudge,  adjudge,  prejudge. 
UE,  see  EW. 
UFF. 
Buff;  cuflF,  bluff",  huff;  gruff;  luff",  puff;  snuff;  stuff;  raff;  rebuff;  counterbaff, 
fee.     Peifect  rhymes,  rough,  tough,  enough,  slough,  (cow*  shin),    chough, 
&c.    Allowable  rhymes,  loaf,  oaf,  &c. 

UFT. 
Tuft.     Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs   in  uff;   as 
cuffed,  stuffed,  &c. 

UG. 
Lug,  bug,  di  :g,  drag,  hug,  rug,  slug,  snug,  mug,  shrag,  pug.    AilotvabU 
flymes,  vosnxe  rogti«  &c. 

UICE,  see  USE. 
UrSE,  s€c  ISE  and  USE. 


272  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

UIE,  see  IE. 
UKE. 
Dake,  puke,  rebuke,  &c.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes^  cook,  look,  book,  &c. 
AUnoaUe  rhymes^  duck,  buck,  &c. 

UL  and  ULL. 
Cull,  dull,  gull,  hull,  lull,  mull,  null,  truU,  skull,  annul,  disannul.    AUow- 
able  rhymes,  fool,  tool,  &c.,  wool,  bull,  pull,  full,  bountiful,  fanciful,  sorrow- 
ful, dutiful,  merciful,  wonderful,  worsliipful,  and  every  word  endmg  in  fill 
having  the  acceiU  on  the  aiUejpenvXtimaie  syllable. 

ULE. 
Mule,  pule,  yule,  rule,  overrule,  ridicule,  misrule.    AUowabU  rhymety 
cull,  dull,  wool,  full,  bountiful,  &c.     See  the  last  article. 
ULGE. 
Bulge,  indule,  divulge,  &c. 

ULK. 
Bulk,  hulk,  skulk. 

ULSE. 
Pulse,  repulse,  impulse,  expulse,  convulse. 

ULT. 
Result,  adult,  exult,  consult,  indult,  occult,  insult,  difficult,  &p-    AlUno 
able  rhymes,  colt,  bolt,  &c. 

UM. 
Crum,  drum,  grum,  gum,  hum,  mum,  scum,  pmm,  stum,  sum,  swum, 
thrum.    Perfect  rhymes^  thumb,  dumb,  succumb,  come,  become,  overcome. 


burthensome,  cumbersome,  frolicsome,  humorsome,  quarrelsome,  trouble- 

■tyrdom,  Christendom.    AUowabU  rhymes.  It 
and  room,  doom,  tomb,  hecatomb. 


some,  martyrdom,  Christendom.    AUowabU  rhymes^  fume,  plume,  rheum. 


UME. 
Pume,  plume,  assume,  consume,  perfume,  resume,  presume,  deplume. 

UMP. 
Bump,  pump,  jump,  lump,  plump,  rump,  stump,  trump,  thump.     Pcrfeei 
hym^,  clomp. 

UN. 
Dun,  gim,  nun,  pun,  run,  sun,  shun,  tun,  stun,  spun,  begun.    Perftet 
rhymes,  son,  won,  ton,  done,   one.  none,  undone.    AUotoabU  rhymes,  on 
gone,  &c.,  tune,  prune,  &c.    See  ON. 

UNCE. 
Dunce,  once,  &c.    AUowabU  rhymes,  sconce. 

UNCH. 
Bunch,  punch,  hunch,  lunch,  munch. 
UND. 
Fund,  refund.    Perfect  rhymes  the  preterits  and partieipUs  of  v»h$  in  un, 
as  shunned,  &c 

UNE. 


June,  tune,  imtuno.  jejune,  prune,  importune,  &c     Nearly  per  feet  rhymes 

lOon,  soon,  5cc.      Allowable  rhymes,  bun,  dun,  &o. 
UNG. 
lung,  dung,  flung,  hung,  rung,  strung,  sung,  sprung,  slung,  stung,  swung, 
5,  tmsung.     Perfect  rhymes,  young,  tongue,  among.    AUowabU  rhymes 
J,  long,  &c. 


moon, 

UNG. 

Clung,  dung,  fl^n^,  hung,  rung,  strung,  sung,  sprung,  slung,  stung,  swung, 

•ong,'       _ 

UNGE. 
Plunge,  spungc,  expunge;  &c. 

UNK. 
Drunk,  sunk,  shrunk,  stuak,  spunk,  punk,  trunk,  slunk.    Perfect  rhynu 
moQk. 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  273 

UNT. 
Brunt,  blunt,  hunt,  runt,  grunt.     Perfect  rhyme,  wont  (to  he  accustor/ied ) 

UP. 
Cup,  sup,  up.    Allowable  rhymes,  cope,  scope,  aTid  dupe,  group,  &c. 

UPT. 
Abrupt,  corrupt,  interrupt.    Perfect  rhymes,  the  participles  of  verbs  in 
ap,  as  supped,  &c. 

UR 
Blur,  cur,  bur,  fur,  slur,  spur,  concur,  demur,  incur.    Perfect  rhymes,  sir, 
stir.    Nearly  perfect  rhyme,  fir,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  pore,  oar,  &c. 

URB. 
Curb,  disturb.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  verb,  herb,  &c.    Allowable  rhyme^ 
orb. 

URCH. 
Church,  lurch,  birch.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  perch,  search.    Allowable 
rhyme,  porch. 

URD. 
Curd,  absurd.  Perfect  rhymes,  bird,  word,  and  the  pretents  and partieiplet 
of  verbs  in  ur,  as  spurred.  Allowable  rhymes,  board,  ford,  cord,  lord,  &c., 
and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ore,  oar,  and  or,  as  gored^ 
oared,  abhorred,  &c.,  also  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ure,  as 
cured,  immured,  &c.    See  ORD. 

URE. 
Cure,  pure,  dure,  lure,  sure,  adjure,  allure,  assure,  demure,  conjure,  endure, 
manure,  enure,  insure,  immature,  immure,  mature,  obscure,  procure,  secure 
adjure,  calenture,  coverture,  epicure,  investiture,  forfeiture,  mmiture,  minia 
ture,  nouriture,  overture,  portraiture,  primogeniture,  temperature.  Allow 
able  rhymes,  poor,  moor,  power,  sour,  &c.,  cur,  bur,  &c. 

URF.  * 

Turf,  scurf,  &c. 

URGE. 
Purge,  urge,  surge,  scourge.    Perfect  rhymes,  verge,  diverge,  &c.    Allouf 
able  rhymes,  gorge,  George,  &c.,  fo£ge,  &c. 

URK. 
Lurk,  Turk.    Perfect  rhyme,  work.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  irk,  jerk,  perk 

URL,  see  IRL, 
Churl,  curl,  furl,  Ijirl,  purl,  uncurl,  unfurl.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  girl, 
twirl,  &c.,  pearL  &c. 

URN. 
Bum,  chum,  spurn,  turn,  um,  return,  overturn.    Perfect  rhymes,  sojourn, 
aijoura,  rejourn. 

URSE. 
Nurse,  curse,  purse,  accurse,  disburse,  imburse,  reimburse.   Perfect  rnyme, 
tvorse.    AUowadle  rhymes,  coarse,  corse,  force,  verse,  disperse,  horse,  &c. 
URST. 
Bnrst,  curst,  durst,  accurst,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  thirst,  worst,  first. 

URT. 
Blurt,  hurt,  spurt.    Perfect  rhymes,  dirt,  shirt,  flirt,  squirt,  &c.    Allowable 
ihymes,  port,  court,  short,  snort,  &c. 

US. 
Us,  thus,  buss,  truss,  discuss,  incubus,  overplus,  amorous,  boisterous, 
clamorous,  credulous,  dangerous,  degenerous,  generous,  emulous,  fabulous 
frivolous,  hazardous,  idolatrous,  infamous,  miraculous,  mischievous,  moun 
tainous,  mutinous,  necessitous,  numerous,  ominous,  perilous,  poisonous 
pDpulous,  properous,  ridiculous,  riotous,  ruinous,  scandalous,  scrupulous 


274  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

sedulous,  traitorous,  treachous,  tyrannous,  venomous,  vigorous,  villainous, 
adventurcms,  adulterous,  ambiguous,  blasphemous,   dolorous,  fortuitous, 
sonorous,  gluttonous,  gratuitous,  incredulous,  lecherous,  libidinous,  mag 
nanimous,  obstreperous,  odoriferous,  ponderous,  ravenous,  rigorous,  slan 
derous,  solicitous,  timorous,  valorous,  unanimous,  calamitous.    AUotoaHs 
rhymes,  the  nouns  use,  abuse,  diffuse,  excuse,  the  verb  to  loose,  cund  ths 
tunms,  goose,  deuce,  juice,  truce,  &c.,  close,  dose,  house,  mouse,  &c. 
USE,  with  the  s  pure. 
T7ie  nouns  use,  disuse,  abuse,  deuce,  truce.    Perfect  rhymes,  the  verb  to 
loose,  tJie  nouns,  goose,  noose,  moose.    Allowable  rhymes,  us,  thus,  buss,  &c. 
USE,  sounded  UZE. 
Muse,  the  verbs  to  use,  abuse,  amuse,  diffuse,  excuse,  infuse,  misuse,  pe- 
ruse, refuse,  suffuse,  transfuse,  accuse.    Perfect  rhymes,  bruise,  and  tk* 
plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons  singular  of  verbs  in  ew,  and  ue,  as  dew», 
imbues,  &c.    AUowaMe  rhymes,  buzz,  does,  &c. 

USH. 
Blush,  brush,  crush,  gush,  flush,  rush,  hush.   Allowable  rhymes^  bush,  push. 

USE. 
Busk,  tusk,  dusk,  husk,  musk. 

UST. 
Bust,  crust,  dust,  just,  must,  lust,  rust,  thrust,  trust,  adjust,  adust,  disgust, 
distrust,  intrust,  mistrust,  robust,  unjust.    Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits  ana 
participles  of  verbs  in  uss,  as  trussed,  discussed,  &c. 

UT. 
But,  butt,  cut,  hut,  gut,  glut,  jut,  nut,  shut,  strut,  englut,  rut,  scut,  slut, 
smut,  abut.    Perfect  rhyme,  soot.    Allowable  rhymes,  boot,  &c.,  dispute,  Sec. 
boat,  &c. 

UTCH. 
Hutch,  crutdi,  Dutch.    Perfect  rhymes,  much,  such,  touch,  &c. 

UTE. 
Brute,  lute,  flute,  mute,  acute,  compute,  confute,  dispute,  dilute,  depute, 
impute,  miuute,  pollute,  refute,  repute,  salute,  absolute,  attribute,  constitute, 
destitute,  dissolute,  execute,  institute,  irrg^olute,  persecute,  prosecute,  pros 
titute,  resolute,  substitute.  Perfect  rhymes,  fruit,  recruit,  &c.  AUotvabU 
rhymes,  boot,  &c.,  boat,  &c.,  note,  &c.,  hut,  &c. 

UX. 
Flux,  reflux,  &c.     Perfect  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons 
of  verbs  in  uck,  as  ducks,  trucks,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  the  plurals  of 
twwns  and  third  persons  of  verbs  in  ook,  uke,  oak,  &c.,  as  cooks,  pukes, 
oaks,  &c. 

Y,  see  IE. 


I  It  is  suggested  here,  tliat  the  student  be  exercised  in  finding  rhymes  to 
a  few  words  proposed  by  the  teaclier,  and  in  his  presence ;  and  that  this 
be  done  witliout  the  aid  of  the  preceding  vocAbulary.  After  tlie  student 
has  exercised  his  o^vn  inventive  powers,  he  may  then  be  permitted  to  in- 
spect the  vocabulary.  Sucli  an  exercise,  if  it  subserve  no  other  purpos«. 
will  be  found  useful  in  giving  roramand  of  language.] 


AIDS    rO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  275 

In  humorous  pieces,  the  poet  sometimes  takes  great  liberties  in  his 
rhymes ;  aiming  at  drollery  in  the  form,  as  well  as  the  matter  of  his 
verse.  The  following  tale  exemplifies  this  remark,  particularly  in  the 
33d  and  36th  lines,  where  the  expression  "■paws  off]  he  "  is  made  to  rhyme 
with  the  word  ^^  philosophy  "  ;  and  below,  "  weeping  "  and  "  deq)  in  " ;  '•'■Jit- 
ting  "  and  "  bit  in  "  ;  "  divine  as  "  and  ^'■Aquinas  " ;  "  sully  verse  "  and  "  Qui- 
livers  " ;  '•^few  so  "  and  "  Crusoe  "  ;  "  said  he  "  and  "  ready  " ;  "  Iiome  as  " 
and  "  Thomas " ;  '■'"me  as  "  "  ideas " ;  " suffice  it  her "  and  " eyes  at  her'" 
"  matter  he  "  and  "  battery  " ;  "  brought  her  "  and  "  water ^^^  &c. 

Although  the  tale  is  rather  long,  it  is  thought  that  the  introduction  of 
the  whole  ot  it  may  afford  mstruction  as  well  as  amusement,  as  an  ex- 
ample of  this  peculiar  style. 

THE   KNIGHT   AND    THE    LADY. 

▲   DOMESTIC   LEGEND   OP  THE   REIGN  OF   QUEEN  ANNB. 

BT  THOKAS  INGOLDSBT,  ESQ. 

'*  Hail  I  wedded  love  I  mysterious  tie !  " 

Thomson— or  Somebody. 

The  Lady  Jane  was  tall  and  slim, 

The  Ladv  Jane  was  fair, 

And  Sir  Thomas,  her  lord,  was  stout  of  limb, 
But  his  cough  was  short,  and  his  eyes  were  dim. 
And  he  wore  green  "  specs,"  with  a  tortoise-shell  rim. 
And  liis  hat  y>  as  remarkably  broad  in  the  brim, 
And  she  was  uncommonly  fond  of  him. 

And  they  were  a  loving  pair ! — 

And  the  naine  and  the  fame 

Of  the  Knight  and  his  Dame, 
Were  ev'ry  where  hail'd  with  the  loudest  acclaim ; 
And  wherever  tliey  went,  or  wherever  they  came, 

Far  and  wide. 

The  people  cried 
Huzza !  for  the  lord  of  this  noble  domain  — 
Huzza !  Huzza !  Huzza !  —  once  again !  — 

Encore  !  -^  Encore ! 

One  cheer  more ! 
All  sorts  of  pleasure,  and  no  sort  of  pain 
To  Sir  Thomas  the  Good  and  the  fan:  Lady  Jane ! 

Now,  Sir  Thomas  the  Good, 

Be  it  well  understood, 
Was  a  man  of  a  very  contemplative  mood  — 

He  would  pore  by  the  hour 

O'er  a  weed  or  a  flower. 
Or  the  slugs  that  come  crawling  out  after  a  shower ; 
Black-beetles,  and  Bumble-bees,  —  Blue-bottle  Flies, 
And  Moths  were  of  no  small  account  in  his  eyes ; 
An  "  Lidustrious  Flea  "  he'd  by  no  means  despise. 
While  an  "  Old  Daddy-long-legs,"  whose  "  long  legs  "  and  thighs 
Pass'd  the  common  in  shape,  or  in  color,  or  size, 
He  was  wont  to  consider  an  absolute  prize. 
Nay,  a  hornet  or  wasp  he  could  scarce  "  keep  his  paws  off "  —  he 

Gave  up,  in  short, 

Both  business  and  sport.        ' 


276  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITIOW. 

And  abandoned  himself,  totit  etUier,  to  Philosophy. 
Now,  as  Lady  Jane  was  tall  and  sliin, 

And  Lady  Jane  was  fair. 
And  a  good  many  years  the  junior  of  him,  — 

And  as  she, 

All  agree. 
Look'd  less  like  her  Miri, 
As  he  walked  by  her  side,  than  her  Pere,* 
There  are  some  might  be  found  entertaining  a  notioa 
That  such  an  entire  and  exclusive  devotion 
To  that  part  of  science  folks  call  Kntomology, 

Was  a  positive  shame, 

And  to  such  a  fair  Dame, 
Beally  demanded  some  sort  of  apology ; 

No  doubt  it  wottld  vex 

One  half  of  the  sex 
To  see  their  own  husband,  in  horrid  green  "  spec*,** 
Instead  of  enjoying  a  sociable  chat, 
Still  poking  his  nose  into  this  and  to  that. 
At  a  gnat,  or  a  bat,  or  a  cat,  or  a  rat, 

Or  great  ugly  things, 

All  legs  and  wings, 
With  nasty  long  tails  ann'd  with  nasty  long  stings ; 
And  they'd  join  such  a  log  of  a  spouse  to  condemn, 

One  eternally  thinking. 

And  blinking,  and  winking 
At  grubs, -—  when  he  ought  to  be  winking  at  them. 

But  no  1  —  oh  no ! 

'Twas  by  no  means  so 
VJlth  the  Lady  Jane  Ingoldsby  —  she,  far  discreeter, 
And,  having  a  temper  more  even,  and  sweeter, 

Would  never  object  to 

Her  spouse,  in  respect  to 

His  poking  and  peeping 

After  "  thmgs  creepmg ;  " 
Much  less  be  still  keeping  lamenting  and  weeping 
Or  scolding,  at  what  slie  perceived  him  so  deep  in. 

Tout  au  coyitraire, 

No  lady  so  fair 
Was  e'er  known  to  wear  more  contented  an  air ; 
And,  —  let  who  would  call,  —  every  day  she  was  there, 
Propounding  receipts  for  some  delicate  fare, 
Some  toothsome  conserve,  of  quince,  apple,  or  pear. 
Or  distilling  strong  waters,  —  or  potting  a  hare,  — 
Or  counting  her  spoons,  and  her  crockery-ware 
Or  else,  her  tumbour-frame  before  her,  with  care 
Embroidering  a  stool,  or  a  back  for  a  chair, 
With  needle-work  roses,  most  cunning  and  rare. 
Enough  to  make  less  gifted  visters  stare. 

And  declare,  where'er 

They  had  boon,  that  "  they  ne'er 
In  their  lives  had  seen  ought  that  at  all  could  compare 
With  dear  Lady  Jane's  housewifery  —  that  they  would  swearJ 

•  My  friend,  Mr.  Rood, 
In  IUh  comical  mood. 
Would  hare  probably  stvU-d  llio  Kood  Knight  and  his  Lady 
Him—"  St«m-old  and  Hvp-kins,'*  and  h«r^'  T«to  and  BraMjr.'* 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  277 

Nay  more ;  don't  suppose 

With  such  doings  as  those 
This  account  of  her  merits  must  come  to  a  close ; 
No ;  —  examine  her  conduct  more  closely,  you'll  find 
She  by  no  means  neglected  improving  her  mind ; 
For  there,  all  the  while,  with  air  quite  bewitching, 
She  sat  herring-boning,  tambouring,  or  stitching, 
Or  having  an  eve  to  affairs  of  the  kitchen, 

Close  by  her  side, 

Sat  her  kinsman  M' Bride, 
Her  cousin,  fourteen  times  removed  —  as  you'll  see 
If  you  look  at  the  Ingoldsby  family  tree. 
In  "  Burke's  Commoners,"  vol.  20,  page  53. 

All  the  papers  I've  read  agree. 

Too,  with  the  pedigree, 
Where,  among  the  collateral  branches,  appears, 
•  Captain  Dugald  MacBride,  Royal  Scots-Fusileers ; " 
And  I  doubt  if  you'd  find' in  the  whole  of  his  clan 
A  more  highly  intelligent,  worthy  young  man,  — 

^d  there  he'd  be  sitting. 

While  she  was  a  knitting. 
Or  hemming,  or  stitching,  or  darning  and  fitting. 
Or  putting  a  "  gore  "  or  a  "  gusset,"  or  "  bit  "  in, 
Reading  aloud,  with  a  very  grave  look. 
Some  very  "  wise  saw  "  from  some  very  good  book,  — 

Some  such  pious  divine  as 

St.  Thomas  Aquinas ; 

Or,  Equally  charming 

The  works  of  Bellarmine  ; 

Or  else  he  unravels 

The  "  voyages  and  travels  " 
Of  Hackluytz  —  how  sadly  these  Dutch  names  do  snlly  versa 
Purchas's,  Hawks  worth's. or  Lemuel  Gulliver's  — 
Not  to  name  others  'mongst  whom  are  few  so 
Admired  as  John  Bunyan,  and  Robinson  Crusoe, — 

No  matter  who  came 

It  was  always  the  same. 
The  Captain  was  reading  aloud  to  the  dame. 
Till,  from  having  gone  through  half  the  books  on  the  shelf, 
They  were  almost  as  wise  as  Sir  Thomas  himself. 

Well,  —  it  happened  one  day, 

I  really  can't  say 
The  particular  month  —  but  I  think  'twas  in  May, — 
'Twas,  I  know,  in  the  Spring  time,  —  when  "  Nature  looks  gay,*' 
As  the  poet  observes,  —  and  on  treetop  and  spray 
The  dear  little  dickey  birds  carol  away ; 
When  the  grass  is  so  green,  and  the  sun  is  so  bright, 
And  aU  things  are  teeming  with  life  and  with  light, — 
That  the  whole  of  the  house  was  throwp  into  afirightj 
For  no  soul  could  conceive  what  had  gone  with  the  Kni^t 

It  seems  he  had  taken, 

A  light  breakiast  —  bacon. 
An  egg  —  with  a  little  broiled  haddock  —  at  most 
A  roimd  and  a  half  of  some  hot  butter' d  toast, 
With  a  slice  of  cold  sirloin  from  yesterday's  roast, 

And  th«n — let  me  see !  — 

He  had  two  —  perhaps  three 

24 


278  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Cups  (with  sugar  and  cream)  of  strong  Gunpowder  tea, 
With  a  spoonful  in  each  of  some  choice  eau  de  vie. 
Which  with  nine  out  of  ten  would  perhaps  disagree. 

In  fact,  I  and  my  son 

Mix  "  black  "  with  our  "  Hyson," 
Neither  having  the  nerves  of  a  bull  or  a  bison. 
And  both  hating  brandy  like  what  some  call  "  pison." 

No  matter  for  that  — 

He  had  called  for  his  hat, 
With  the  brim  that  I  've  said  was  so  broad  and  so  flat, 
And  his  "  specs  "  with  the  tortoise-shell  rim,  and  his  cane, 
With  the  crutch-handled  top,  which  he  used  to  sustain 
His  steps  in  his  walks,  and  to  poke  in  the  shrubs 
And  the  grass,  when  unearthing  his  worms  and  his  grabs — 
Thus  armed,  he  set  out  on  a  ramble  —  alack  ! 
He  set  out,  poor  dear  Soul !  —  but  he  never  came  back  1 

"  First "  dinner-bell  rang 

Out  its  euphonious  clang 
At  five  —folks  kept  early  hours  then  —  and  the  '*  Last " 
Ding-dong'd,  as  it  ever  was  wont,  at  half-past. 

While  Betsey,  and  Sally, 

And  Thompson,  the  VaUt, 
And  every  one  else  was  beginning  to  bless  himself, 
Wondering  the  Kniglit  had  not  come  in  to  dress  himself.  — 
—  Quoth  Betsey,  "Dear  me !  why  the  fish  will  be  cold ! " 
Quoth  Sally,  "  Good  gracious !  how  '  Missis '  will  scold  I "  — 

Thompson,  the  VcUet, 

Looked  gravely  at  Sally, 
As  who  should  say,  "  Truth  must  not  always  be  told ! " 
Then  expressing  a  fear  lest  the  Knight  might  take  cold. 

Thus  exposed  to  the  dews, 

Lambs^-wool  stockings,  and  shoes, 

Of  each  a  fresh  pair, 

He  put  down  to  air. 
And  hung  a  clean  shirt  to  the  fire  on  a  chair — 

Still  the  Master  was  absent  —  the  Cook  came  and  said  "  he 
Much  fear'd,  as  the  dinner  had  been  so  long  ready. 

The  roast  and  the  boil'd 

Would  bo  all  of  it  spoil'd. 
And  the  puddings,  her  Ladyship  thought  such  a  treat, 
He  was  morally  sure,  would  be  scarce  fit  to  eat  1  '• 

This  closed  the  debate  — 
"  'T  would  bo  folly  to  wait," 
Said  the  Lady,  "  Dish  up  !  —  Let  the  meal  be  served  straight  f 
And  let  two  or  three  slices  bo  put  in  a  plate. 
And  kept  hot  for  Sir  Tliomas,  —  He 's  lost,  sure  as  fate  1 
And,  a  hundred  to  one,  won't  be  home  till  it 's  late  1 "    - 
Captain  DugiUd  MaoBride  then  proceeded  to  face 


The  Lady  at  table,  —  stood  up,  and  said  6.«v.>., — 
Then  set  himself  down  in  Sir  Thomas's  place. 

Wearily,  wearily,  all  that  night. 
That  live-long  night,  did  the  uours  go  by; 

And  the  Lady  Jane, 

In  grief  and  in  pain. 
She  sat  herself  down  to  cry !  — 

And  Captain  M'Bride 

Who  sat  by  her  side 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  279 

Thongli  I  really  can't  say  that  he  actually  cried, 

At  least  had  a  tear  in  his  eyo  I 
As  much  as  can  well  be  expected,  perhaps, 
From  very  "  j^oung  fellows  "  to  very  "  old  chaps ; " 

And  if  he  had  said 

What  he  'd  got  in  his  head, 
'T  would  have  been  "  Poor  old  Buffer !  he 's  certainly  deaa !  ♦ 
The  morning  dawn'd,  —  and  the  next,  —  and  the  next, 
And  all  the  mansion  were  still  perplex'd ; 
No  watch  dog  "  bay'd  a  welcome  home,"  as 
A  watch  dog  should,  to  the  "  Good  Sir  Thomas ;  *' 

No  Knocker  fell 

His  approach  to  teH, 
Not  so  much  as  a  runaway  ring  at  the  beU  — 
The  Hall  was  as  silent  as  a  Hermit's  cell. 
Yet  the  Sun  shone  bright  upon  tower  and  tree. 
And  the  meads  smiled  green  as  green  may  be, 
And  the  dear  little  dickey  birds  caroll'd  with  glee, 
And  the  lambs  in  the  park  skipp'd  merry  and  free  — 

—  Without,  all  was  joy  and  harmony ! 

"  And  thus  't  wiU  be,  — nor  long  the  day,  — 
Ere  we,  like  him,  shall  pass  away ! 
y  Yon  sun  that  now  oicr  bosom  warms. 
Shall  shine,  —  but  shine  on  other  forms ;  — 
Yon  Grove,  whose  choir  so  sweetly  cheers 
Us  now,  shall  sound  on  other  ears,  — 
The  joyous  Lamb,  as  now,  shall  play, 
But  other  eyes  its  sports  survey— 
The  stream  we  loved  shaU  roU  as  fair. 
The  flowery  sweets,  the  trim  Parterre, 
Shall  scent,  as  now,  the  ambient  air,  — 
The  Tree,  whose  bending  branches  bear 

The  one  loved  name  —  shall  yet  be  there ;  — 
But  where  the  hand  that  carved  it  ?  —  Where  ?  " 

These  were  hinted  to  me  as 

The  very  ideas 
Which  passed  through  the  mind  of  the  fair  Lady  Jane. 
Her  thoughts  having  taken  a  sombre-ish  train 
As  she  walked  on  the  esplanade,  to  and  again. 

With  Captain  M'Bride, 

Of  course  at  her  side. 
Who  could  not  look  quite  so  forlorn,  though  he  tried. 

—  An  "idea,"  in  fact,  had  got  into  his  head. 

That  if  "  poor  dear  Sir  Thomas  "  should  really  be  dead, 
It  might  be  no  bad  "  spec."  to  be  there  in  his  stead, 
And,  by  simply  contriving,  in  due  time  to  wed 
A  lady  who  was  young  and  fair, 

A  lady  slim  and  tall, 
To  set  himself  down  in  comfort  there 

The  Lord  of  Tapton*  HaU.  — 

Thinks  he,  "  We  have  sent 

Half  over  Kent, 
And  nobody  knows  how  much  money 's  been  spent, 
Yet  no  one 's  been  found  to  say  which  way  he  went ! 


*  The  famUiar  abbre'^tation  for  Tappington  Everard  i^till  in  use  among  tbe  teiMn% 
r  —  Vide  Prefatory  iutroduftxom  to  tht  Ingoldsby  Ltgendf. 


280  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

The  groom,  who 's  been  over 

To  Folkstone  ar  d  Dover, 
Can't  get  any  tidings  at  all  of  the  rover  . 
-—  Here 's  a  fortnight  and  more  has  gone  by,  and  we  've  tried 
Every  plan  we  could  hit  on  —  the  whole  country-side, 
Upon  all  its  dead  walls,  with  placards  we  've  supplied,  — 
And  we  've  sent  out  the  Crier,  and  had  him  well  cried  — 

Missing  !  1 

Stolen  or  strayed, 

Lost  or  mislaid, 
A  Gentleman  ;  middle-aged,  sober,  and  staid ; 
Stoops  slightly  —  and  when  he  left  home  was  arrayed 
In  a  sad-colored  suit,  somewhat  dingy  and  fray'd ;  — 
Had  spectacles  on  with  a  tortoise-shell  rim. 
And  a  hat  rather  lower-crown'd,  and  broad  in  the  brim, 

Whoe'er 

Shall  bear 
Or  send  him,  with  care, 
(Right  side  uppermost)  home ;  —  or  shall  give  notice  where 
The  said  middle-aged  Gentleman  is ;  —  or  shall  state 
Any  fact  that  may  tend  to  throw  light  on  his  fate, 
To  the  man  at  the  turnpike  called  Tappington-Gate, 
Shall  receive  a  Revjtard  op  Five  Pounds  for  his  trouble  — 
[TF"  N.  B.  If  defunct,  the  reward  shall  be  double !  ,£31 

Had  he  been  above  ground 

He  MUST  have  been  found. 
No— doubtless  he 's  shot  —  or  he 's  hang'd — or  he 's  drown'd  I  — 

Then  his  Widow  —  aye !  aye  !  — 

But,  what  will  folks  say  ?  — 
To  address  her  at  once  —  at  so  early  a  day  ? 
Well  —  what  then  ?  —  who  cares  ?  —  let  'em  say  what  they  may  — 
A  fig  for  their  nonsense  and  chatter !  —  suffice  it,  her 
Charms  will  excuse  one  for  casting  sheep's  eyes  at  her !  '• 

When  a  man  has  decided, 

As  Captain  M'Bride  did. 
And  once  fully  made  up  his  mind  on  the  matter,  he 
Can't  be  too  prompt  in  unmasking  his  battery. 
He  began  on  the  instant,  and  vow'd  that  "  her  eyes 
Far  exceeded  in  brilliance  the  stars  in  the  skies,  — 
That  her  lips  were  like  roses  —  her  cheeks  were  like  lilies  — 
Her  breath  had  the  odor  of  daffy-down  dillies  !  " 
With  a  thousand  more  compliments  equally  true, 
And  expressed  in  similitudes  equally  now  f 

Then  his  left  arm  he  placed 

Round  her  jimp,  taper  waist  — 
Ere  she  fix'd  to  repulse,  or  return  his  embrace, 
Up  came  running  a  man  at  a  deuce  of  a  pace, 
With  that  very  peculiar  expression  of  face 
Which  always  betokens  dismay  or  disaster, 

Crying out-^'T  was  the  Gardener —  "Oh,  ma'm !  we  've  found  master !  !• 
—  "  Where  ?  where  ?"  scream'd  the  lady ;  and  Echo  scream'd  "Where?" 

The  man  couldn't  say  "  There ! " 

Ho  had  no  breath  to  spare, 
But,  gasping  for  air,  he  could  only  respond 
By  pointing  —  ho  pointed,  alas !  — to  the  pond  ! 
— 'T  was  e'en  so  !  —  poor  dear  Knight !  —  with  his  '  specs  "  and  hii  hat 
He'd  gone  poking  his  nose  into  this  and  that ; 

Wlion,  close  to  the  side 

Of  the  bank,  he  espied 
An  "uncommrn  fine  "  tadpole,  remarkably  fat; 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  281 

He  stooped ;  —  and  he  thought  her 

His  own ;  —  he  had  caught  her ! 
(jrot  hold  of  her  tail,  —  and  to  land  almost  brought  her, 
When  —  he  plump'd  head  and  heels  into  fifteen  feet  water  I 

The  Lady  Jane  was  tall  and  slim, 

The  Lady  Jane  was  fair  — 
Alas,  for  Sir  Thomas  !  she  grieved  for  him, 
As  she  saw  two  serving-men,  sturdy  of  limb, 

His  body  between  them  bear. 
She  sobbed,  and  she  sighed ;  she  lamented,  and  cried. 

For  of  sorrow  brimful  was  her  cup ; 
She  swooned,  and  I  think  she  'd  have  fallen  down  and  died 
If  Captain  MacBride 
Had  not  been  by  her  side, 
With  the  Garden3r ;  they  both  their  assistance  supplied, 
And  managed  to  hold  her  up  — 
But.  when  she  "  comes  to," 
Oh  (  'tis  shocking  to  view 
The  sight  which  the  corpse  reveals ! 
Sir  Thomas's  body, 
It  looked  so  odd  —  he 
Was  half  eaten  up  by  the  eels ! 
His  waistcoat  and  hose,  and  the  rest  of  his  clothes. 
Were  all  gnawed  through  and  through ; 
And  out  of  each  shoe 
An  eel  they  drew, 
And  from  each  of  his  pockets  they  pulled  out  two  \ 
And  the  gardener  himself  had  secreted  a  few. 

As  well  we  may  suppose  ; 
For,  when  he  came  running  to  give  the  alarm. 
He  had  six  in  the  basket  that  hung  on  his  arm. 

Good  Father  John  * 

Was  summoned  anon ; 

Holy  water  was  sprinkled. 

And  Uttle  bells  tinkled. 

And  tapers  were  lighted. 

And  mcense  ignited, 
And  masses  were  sung  and  masses  were  said, 
All  dav,  for  the  quiet  repose  of  the  de&u. 
And  all  night  —  no  one  thought  of  going  to  bed. 

But  Lady  Jane  was  tall  and  slim. 
And  Lady  Jane  was  fair,  — 
And,  ere  morning  came,  that  winsome  dame 
Had  made  up  her  mind  —  or,  what's  much  the  same, 
Had  tlwught  about —  once  more  "  changing  her  name. ' 

And  she  said,  with  a  pensive  air. 
To  Thompson,  the  valet,  while  taking  away, 
When  supper  was  over,  the  cloth  and  the  tray,  — 
**  Eels  a  many 
I  've  ate ;  but  any 
So  good  ne'er  tasted  before !  — 


*  For  some  account  of  Father  John  Ingoldsby,  to  whose  pap«r«  I  vtn  «o  mac^  *■*• 
bolden,  see  Ingoldsby's  Legends,  first  series,  p.  216,  (2cl  Edit.;  Thit  was  fh  »*A 
•eclesiastical  act  of  his  long  and  valuable  life. 

24* 


282  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


Tbey  'ro  a  fish,  too,  of  which  I  'm  remarkably  fond.  — 
Go  —  pop  Sir  Thomas  again  in  the  pond  — 

'Poor  dear! ' — he  'll  catch  us  some  mors  ! !" 


All  middle-aged  gentlamen  let  me  advise, 
If  you  're  married,  and  have  not  got  very  good  eyes, 
Don't  go  poking  about  after  blue-bottlecl  flies  !  — 
If  you  'v-e  spectacles,  don't  have  a  tortoiseshell  rim, 
And  don't  go  near  the  water,  —  unless  you  can  swim  1 

Married  ladies,  especially  such  as  are  fair. 
Tall,  and  slim,  I  would  next  recommend  to  beware, 
How,  on  losing  one  spouse,  they  give  way  to  despair ; 
But  let  them  reflect,  "  There  are  nsh,  and  no  douot  on 't  — 
As  good  in  the  river  as  ever  came  ovt  on 't  1  " 

Should  they  light  on  a  spouse  who  is  given  to  roaming 

In  solitude  —  raison  de  plus,  in  the  "  gloaming," — 

Let  them  have  a  fixed  time  for  said  spouse  to  come  home  m 

And  if,  when  "  last  dinner-bell  "  's  rung,  he  is  late. 

To  insure  better  manners  in  future  —  Do  n't  wait ! 

If  of  husband  or  children  they  chance  to  be  fond, 

Have  a  stout  wire  fence  put  all  round  the  pond  I 

One  more  piece  of  advice,  and  I  close  my  appeals  — 

That  is  —  if  you  chance  to  be  partial  to  eels, 

Then  —  Crede  experto  —  trust  one  who  has  tried, 

Have  them  spitch-cock'd,  —  or  stewed  —  they're  too  oily  when  firtec 


LXXVI. 

EPITHETS. 

The  rules  of  rhyme  have  now  been  presented,  together 
with  a  full  vocabulary,  by  which  the  appropriate  rhyme  to 
any  word  may  be  found.  The  use  of  appropriate  epithets  by 
which  animated  descriptions  may  be  given,  or  the  measure 
of  the  verse  filled  out,  comes  now  to  be  considered.  * 

An  epithet  is  an  adjective,  expressing  some  real  quality  of 
the  subject  to  which  it  is  applied,  or  an  attributive,  expressing 
«>me  quality  ascribed  to  it ;  as  a  verdant  lawn,  a  briUiatU  ap- 
pearance, vijust  man7  an  accurate  description. 


»  Sm  page  166,  undar  Description,  for  some  remarks  and  suggestion* 
intD  regard  to  epitiiets. 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  283 

Epithets  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  compound. 

Simple  epithets  are  single  words,  as,  joyous  youth,  decrepit 
age,  thoughtless  infancy. 

Compound  epithets  consist  of  compound  words,  and  are  fre- 
quently composed  of  nouns  and  other  parts  of  speech,  in  con- 
nexion with  adjectives,  participles,  &c.,  as.  The  meek-eyed 
mom.  Tear-dropping  April,  The  laughter-loving  goddess,  The 
dew-dropping  morn.  In  world-rejoicing  state  it  moves  along,  &c. 

The  judicious  application  of  epithets  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest 
beauties  of  composition;  and  in  poetry,  especially,  the  melody  of  the 
verse,  and  the  ardmation  of  the  style  is,  in  great  measure,  dependent 
upon  it. 

Figurative  language  (seepage  111)  presents  a  vsdde  and  extensive  field 
for  the  supply  of  rich  and  expressive  epithets ;  and  the  poet  is  indulged, 
by  his  peculiar  license,  in  the  formation  of  new  and  original  compound 
epithets.     {See  page  l^&.) 

Alliteration,  also,  [see  page  151)  if  not  profusely  applied,  and  ex- 
pressions in  wliich  the  sound  is  adapted  to  the  sense,  when  introduced 
with  simple  or  compound  epithets,  contribute  in  a  good  degree  to  the 
beauty  and  harmony  of  verse.  ThefoUowing  couplet,  from  Goldsmith's 
Deserted  Village,  presents  an  exemplification  of  this  remark : 

"  The  white-KXZsJied  wall,  the  nicdysanded  floor, 
The  varnished  dock  that  c/ic^:ea  behind  the  door." 

[/See  Orwmatop(Bia.\ 

Example. 

The  word  anger  is  suggested  for  the  application  of  epithets, 
and  the  following  terms  will  be  found  respectively  applicable 
to  it: 

Violent,  impetuous,  threatening,  menacing,  unbridled,  untamed,  mis- 
taking, boiling,  swelling,  frantic,  raging,  flaming,  burning,  passionate, 
roaring,  secret,  waspish,  impatient,  red-looking,  red-glaring,  inflaming, 
bloody,  blood-spilling,  incensed,  stormy,  scarlet,  blood-dyed,  moody,  chol- 
eric, wrathful,  revengeful,  vengeful,  chafing,  foaming,  hot-headed,  heating, 
sparkling,  rash,  blind,  heady,  head-strong,  disordered,  stem-visaged,  giddy, 
flame-eyed,  ghostly,  distempered,  transporting,  tempestuous,  blustering, 
fierce  cruel,  truculent,  overseeing,  frotliy,  implacable,  pettish,  bitter, 
rough,  wild,  stubborn,  unruly,  litigious,  austere,  dreadful,  peace-destroying 
joy-killing,  soul-troubling,  blasting,  death-dealing,  fm-y-kindled,  mortal 
hellish,  heaven-rejected. 

Example  2d. 

FOUNTAIN. 

Chrystal,  gushing,  rustling,  silver,  gently-gliding,  parting,  pearly,  weep 
ing,  bubbling,  gurgling,  chiding,  clear,  grass-fringed,  moss-fringed,  pebble, 
paved  verdant,  sacred    grass-margined,  moss-margined,  trickling,  soft 


284  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

dew-sprinkled,  fast-flowing,  delicate,  delicious,  clean,  straggling,  danang 
vaulting,  deep-cml)OSomcd,  leaping,  murmuring,  muttering,  whispering, 

E rattling,  twaddling,  swelling,  sweet-rolling,  gently-flowing,  rising,  spark- 
ng,  flowing,  frothy,  dew-distilling,  dew-bom,  exhaustlcss,  inexhaustible, 
never-decreasing,  never-faUing,  heaven-bom,  earth-bora,  deep-divulging, 
drought-dispelling,  thirst-allaying,  refreshing,  soul-refreshing,  earth 
tefreshing,  laving,  lavish,  plant-nourishing. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

Apply  epithets  to  the  follovring  names : 

Friend,  friendship,  love,  joy,  sorrow,  revenge,  mirth,  justice,  a  forest,  a 
wood,  a  mountain,  billow,  wave,  ripple,  bloom,  blossom,  bud,  banquet,  ad 
versitv,  affection,  aflfliction,  sorrow,  despair,  allurement,  ambition,  anguish, 
appetite,  avarice,  autumn,  beauty,  bee,  beggar,  bird,  bride,  cave,  cloud, 
clown,  cold,  countenance,  critic,  death,  deceit,  delight,  destroy,  disease, 
discord,  dog,  di-eam,  eagle,  earth,  eye,  envy,  eloquence,  countenance,  fear, 
fire,  firmament,  flame,  flatter,  flower,  gift,  glory,  gold,  grove,  grief,  hair, 
hand,  honor,  hour,  hope,  jealousy,  ignorance,  innocence,  lay,  law,  liberty, 
light,  maid,  majesty,  malice,  mead,  meadow,  minute,  monarch,  mist,  mul- 
titude, night,  pain,  peace,  pleasure,  poetry,  poverty,  pride,  prosperity,  pro- 
vidence, rage,  rebellion,  remorse,  rock,  sea,  shore,  skin,  sleep,  snake,  snow, 
stream,  sun,  swain,  tail,  tear,  tempest,  temple,  throne,  thunder,  rime, 
tongue,  tree,  vale,  vengeance,  verse,  vine,  want,  water,  war,  wine,  woman, 
wit,  wind,  wing,  winter,  wood,  woe,  year,  youth,  zeaL 


Lxxvn. 

LYRIC  POETRY. 

Lyric  poetry  literally  implies  that  kind  of  poetry  which  is 
written  to  accompany  the  lyre,  or  other  musical  instrument 
The  versification  may  either  be  regular,  or  united  in  fanciful 
combinations,  in  correspondence  with  the  strain  for  which  it  is 
composed. 

Example  \st 

THE   WINGED   WORSHIPPERS. 
AddfSi^  to  two  Swallows  thai  fleio  itUo  Church  during  Divine  Servte* 

Gay,  guiltless  pair. 
What  seek  ye  from  the  fields  of  heaven  ? 

Ye  have  no  need  of  prayer. 
Ye  hav  ?  no  sins  to  be  forgiven. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION  285 

Why  perch  ye  here, 
Where  mortals  to  their  Maker  bend  ? 

Can  your  pure  spirits  fear 
The  God  you  never  could  offend  ? 

Ye  never  knew 
The  crimes  for  which  we  come  to  weep ; 

Penance  is  not  for  you, 
Blessed  wanderers  of  the  upper  deep. 

To  you  't  is  given 
I'D  make  sweet  nature's  untaught  lays ; 

Beneath  the  arch  of  heaven 
To  chirp  away  a  life  of  praise. 

Then  spread  each  wing, 
Far,  far  above,  o'er  lakes  and  lands. 

And  join  the  chobrs  that  sing 
In  yon  blue  dome  not  reared  with  hand«. 

Or,  if  ye  stay. 
To  note  the  consecrated  hour, 

Teach  me  the  airy  way, 
And  let  me  try  your  envied  power. 

Above  the  crowd. 
On  upward  wings  could  I  but  fly, 

I  'd  bathe  in  yon  bright  cloud, 
And  seek  the  stars  that  gem  the  sky. 

'T  were  heaven  indeed 
Through  fields  of  trackless  light  to  soar, 

On  nature's  charms  to  feed, 
And  nature's  own  great  God  adore. 


Example  2d. 

LINES   ADDRESSED    TO    LADY   BYBOB. 

There  is  a  mystic  thread  of  life 

So  dearly  wreathed  with  mine  alone, 

That  destiny's  relentless  knife 
At  once  must  sever  both  or  none. 

There  is  a  form  on  which  these  eyes 
Have  often  gazed  with  fond  delight ; 

By  day  that  form  their  joy  supplies, 
And  dreams  restore  it  through  the  night 

There  is  a  voice  whose  tones  inspire 
Such  thrills  of  rapture  through  my  breast} 

I  would  not  hear  a  seraph  choir, 
Unl«S8  that  voice  could  join  the  rept 


286  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

There  is  a  face  whose  blushes  tell 

Aflfection's  tale  upon  the  cheek ; 
But,  pallid  at  one  fond  farewell, 

Proclaims  more  love  than  words  can  speak. 

There  is  a  lip  which  mine  has  pressed, 

^d  none  had  ever  pressed  before ; 
It  vowed  to  make  me  sweetly  blessed, 

And  mine,  —  mine  only,  pressed  it  more. 

There  is  a  bosom,  —  all  my  own,  — 

Hath  pillowed  oft  this  aching  head ; 
A  mouth  which  smiles  on  me  alone. 

An  eye  whose  tears  vnth  mine  are  shed. 

There  are  two  hearts  whose  movements  thrill 

In  unison  so  closely  sweet ! 
That,  pulse  to  pulse,  responsive  still. 

That  both  must  heave,  —  or  cease  to  beat 

There  are  two  souls  whose  equal  flow 

In  gentle  streams  so  calmly  run, 
That  when  they  part  —  they  part !  —  ah,  no  ! 

They  cannot  part,  —  those  souls  are  one. 

The  highest  of  the  modem  lyric  compositions  is  the  Ode 
The  word  ode  is  from  the  Greek,  and  is  generally  translated 
a  song,  but  it  is  not  a  song,  as  we  use  the  term  in  our  lan- 
guage. The  ode  was  the  result  of  strong  excitement,  a  poet- 
ical attempt  to  fill  the  hearts  of  the  auditors  with  feelings  of 
the  sublime.  Odes  that  were  sung  in  honor  of  the  gods  were 
termed  Hymns,  from  a  Greek  word  hymneo,  which  signifies 
to  celebrate.  The  name  is  now  applied  to  those  sacred  songs 
that  are  sung  in  churches.  The  Hebrew  hymns  which  bear 
the  name  of  King  David  are  termed  Psalms,  from  the  Greek 
word  psallo,  which  signifies  to  sing. 

The  Greek  Ode,  when  complete,  was  composed  of  three 
parts,  the  Strophe,  the  Antistrope,  and  the  Epode.  The  two 
former  terms  indicated  the  turnings  of  the  priests  round  and 
about  the  altar.  The  Epode  was  the  end  of  the  song,  and  was 
repeated  standing  still,  before  tlie  altar. 

Pajans  were  songs  of  triumph  sung  in  procession  in  honor 
of  Apollo,  on  occasions  of  a  victory,  &c.,  or  to  the  other  gods 
as  thanksgivings  for  the  cessation  or  cure  of  an  evil.  The 
word  is  derived  from  a  word  signifying  to  heal  or  cure. 

For  examples  of  the  English  ode,  the  student  is  referred  to 
the  well-known  pieces,  "  Alexander's  Feast,"  by  Dryd^n,  and 
the  "  Ode  on  the  Passions,"  by  Collins. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  287 

A  Ballad  is  a  rhyming  record  of  some  adventure  or  tran- 
saction which  is  amusing  or  interesting  to  the  populace,  and 
written  in  easy  and  uniform  verse,  so  that  it  may  easily  be 
sung  by  those  who  have  little  acquaintance  with  music. 

A  Sonnet  is  a  species  of  poetical  composition,  consisting  of 
fourteen  lines  or  verses  of  equal  length.  It  properly  consists 
of  fourteen  iambic  verses,  of  eleven  syllables,  and  is  divided 
into  two  chief  parts ;  —  the  first  consists  of  two  divisions,  each 
of  four  lines,  called  quatrains;  the  second  of  two  divisions 
of  three  lines  each,  called  terzines.  The  rhymes  in  these 
parts  respectively  were  managed  according  to  regular  rules. 
But  these  rules  have  been  seldom  regarded  in  modern  com- 
positions. The  sonnet  generally  contains  one  principal  idea, 
pursued  through  the  various  antitheses  of  the  different  strophes, 
and  adorned  with  the  charm  of  rhyme. 

Example  of  the  Sonnets 

SONNET    TO     ONE     BELOVED. 

Deep  in  my  heart  thy  cherished  secret  lies 

Deep  as  a  pearl  on  ocean's  soundless  floor, 

Where  the  bold  diver  never  can  explore 
Tlie  realms  o'er  which  the  mighty  billows  rise. 
It  rests  far  hidden  from  all  mortal  eyes, 

Not  e'en  discovered  when  the  piercing  light 
Of  mom  illumines  the  uncurtained  skies, 

And  fills  with  sunshine  the  dark  vaults  of  night. 
Repose  in  me  thy  heart's  most  sacred  trust, 

And  nothing  shall  betray  it ;  I  will  bend 
This  human  fabric  to  its  native  dust, 

But  nothing  from  me  shall  that  secret  rend, 
Which  to  my  soul  is  brighter,  dearer  far, 
Than  any  lustre  of  sun,  moon,  or  star. 

A  Cantata  is  a  composition  or  song  intermixed  with  recita- 
tives and  airs,  chiefly  intended  for  a  single  voice. 

A  Canzonet  is  a  short  song  in  one,  two,  or  three  parts.* 

Example, 

BLACK   EYES   AND    BLUE, 

Black  eyes  most  dazzle  in  a  hall ; 
Bilue  eyes  most  please  at  evening  fall ; 
The  black  a  conquest  soonest  gain  5 
The  blue  a  conquest  most  retain ; 

♦"In  magical  coropoteitions,  a  song  consi»ting  of  two  pwrts  is  called  a  DiMt, 
if  in  three  partS)  a  2W0,  if  m  four,  a  Quot^ak,  &&. 


S88  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION- 

The  black  bespeaks  a  lively  heart, 
Whoso  soft  emotions  soon  depart; 
The  blue  a  steadier  flame  betray, 
That  burns  and  lives  beyond  a  day ; 
The  black  may  features  best  disclose ; 
In  blue  may  feelings  all  repose. 
Then  let  eacli  reiga  without  control, 
The  black  all  mind, — the  blue  all  soul  I 

A  Logogriph  is  a  kind  of  riddle. 

Charades  (which  are  frequently  in  verse)  are  compositions, 
in  which  the  subject  must  be  a  word  of  two  syllables,  each 
forming  a  distinct  word,  and  these  syllables  are  to  be  con- 
cealed in  an  enigmatical  description,  first  separately  and  then 
together. 

Madrigals  are  short  lyric  poems  adapted  to  express  in- 
genious and  pleasing  thoughts,  commonly  on  amatory  subjects, 
and  containing  not  less  than  four,  nor  more  than  sixteen  verses, 
of  eleven  syllables,  with  shorter  verses  interspersed,  or  of 
verses  of  eight  syllables  irregularly  rhymed.  The  madiigal 
is  not  confined  to  the  regularity  of  the  sonnet,  but  contains 
some  tender  and  delicate,  though  simple  thought,  suitably 
expressed. 

Example  of  the  3fadr{gal. 

TO  A  LAJ)T  OF  THE  COUNTY  OF  LA2fCASTEE,  WITU  A  WHITE  B08JB. 

If  this  fair  rose  offend  thy  sight. 

It  in  thy  bosom  wear : 
'T  will  blush  to  find  itself  less  white,  ' 

And  turn  Lancastrian  there. 

The  Bondeau  or  rondo,  roundo,  roundel  or  roundelay,  all 
mean  precisely  the  same  thing.  It  commonly  consists  of 
thirteen  lines  or  verses,  of  which  eight  have  one  rhyme,  and 
five  another.  It  is  divided  into  three  couplets,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  second  and  third,  the  beginning  of  the  rondeau  is 
repeated,  if  possible,  in  an  equivocal  or  punning  sense. 

The  Epigram  is  a  short  poem,  treating  only  of  one  thing, 
and  ending  with  some  lively,  ingenious,  and  natural  thought, 
rendered  interesting  by  being  unexpected.  Conciseness  is 
one  of  the  principal  characteristics  of  the  epigram.  Its  point 
often  rests  on  a  witticism  or  verbal  pun ;  but  the  higher  species 
of  tho  epigram  should  be  marked  by  fineness  and  dehcacy, 
rmthor  thJsm  by  smartnos.^  or  rcpartGc 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  289 


Example. 

VBITTEM  ON  A  GLASS  WITH  A  DIAHOND  PENCIL  BELONGING  TO  LORD  STAKHOFK. 

Accept  a  miracle  in  place  of  wit ;  — 

See  two  duU  lines  by  Stanhope's  pencil  writ. 

An  Impromptu  is  an  extemporaneous  composition,  that  is, 
we  made  at  the  moment,  or  without  previous  study. 

An  Acrostic  is  a  composition  in  verse,  in  which  the  initial 
letters  of  each  line,  taken  in  order  from  the  top  to  the  bottom, 
make  up  a  word  or  phrase,  generally  a  person's  name,  or  a 
motto 

Example  of  the  Acrostic. 

F  riendship,  thou  'rt  false !  I  hate  thy  flattering  smile  I 

R  etnm  to  me  those  years  I  spent  in  vain. 

In  early  youth  the  victim  of  thy  guile, 

E  ach  joy  took  wing  ne'er  to  return  again,  — 

N  e'er  to  return ;  for,  chilled  by  hopes  deceived, 

D  ully  the  slow  paced  hours  now  move  along ; 

S  o  changed  the  time,  when,  thoughtless,  I  believed 

H  er  honeyed  words,  and  heard  her  syren  song. 

I  f  e'er,  as  me,  she  lure  some  youth  to  stray, 

Perhaps,  before  too  late,  he  '11  listen  to  my  lay. 

An  Epithalamium  is  a  nuptial  song  or  poem,  in  praise  oi 
the  bride  and  bridegroom,  and  praying  for  their  prosperity.* 


Lxxvni. 


PASTORAL  AND  ELEGIAC  POETRY. 

Pastorals  or  bucolics  are  the  narratives,  songs,  and  dramas, 
which  are  supposed  to  have  been  recited,  sung,  or  acted  by 
shepherds. 

The  ancient  pastorals  were  either  dialogues  or  monologues. 
A  monologue  is  a  poetical  piece,  where  there  is  only  a  single 
ipeaker. 

*  Tha  forty  fifth  PsRim  \i  an  opithakmium  to  Chriat  and  tha  Church. 
25 


^iK)  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

An  Idyl,  Idillion  or  Idyllium  is  a  short  pastoral  of  the  nar 
rative  or  descriptive  kind. 

An  Eclogue  is  the  conversation  of  shepherds.  The  word 
literally  means  a  select  piece,  and  the  art  of  the  poet  lies 
in  selecting  the  beauties  without  the  grossness  of  rural  life. 
The  eclogue  differs  from  the  idyl,  in  being  appropriated  to 
pieces  in  which  shepherds  themselves  are  introduced. 

ELEGY   AND    EPITAPH. 

An  Elegy  is  a  poem  or  a  song  expressive  of  sorrow  and 
lamentation 

An  Epitaph  is,  literally,  an  inscription  on  a  tomb.  When 
written  in  verse,  and  expressive  of  the  sorrow  of  the  survivors, 
epitaphs  are  short  elegies.* 

*  The  following  remarks  on  the  subject  of  epitaphs,  were  originally  pre 
«ented  by  a  young  friend,  as  a  college  exercise.  They  appear  to  oe  so  much 
to  the  purpose,  that  they  are  presented  entire  :  — 

•' '  Nature  and  Nature's  laws  lay  hid  in  night 
God  said,  Let  >:ewton  be !  and  all  was  light. 

"  One  common  fault  in  epitaphs  is  their  too  great  length.  Not  being  easily 
road  upon  stone,  few  trouble  themselves  to  peruse  tbem,  if  they  are  long ; 
and  in  a  churchyard  so  many  solicit  our  attention,  that  we  prefer  to  examine 
those  which  are  concise,  rather  than  spend  our  time  on  a  few  long  ones. 
Every  one,  too,  soon  discovers,  that  those  which  cover  the  stones  on  which 
they  are  inscribed,  are,  for  the  most  part,  feebly  expressed,  and  hardly 
recompense  one  for  the  trouble  of  deciphering  them ;  while  a  concise  in- 
scription immediately  attracts  notice,  and  is  generally  found  to  be  pointed. 
Wo  can  frequently  perceive  the  description  of  character  to  be  untrue,  be- 
cause it  is  coldly  worded,  and  expressed  in  very  general  terms ;  in  short,  a 
character  which  would  apply  to  one  man  as  well  as  another,  and  such  as  is 
frequently  given  to  a  person  whom  we  care  nothing  about.  Such  epitaphs 
I  consider  faulty.  Alter  the  death  of  an  acquaintance,  all  our  feelmgs  of 
dislike,  caused  by  his  presence,  are  dispelled ;  all  the  animosity,  growing  out 
of  the  clashing  of  our  interests  with  his,  vanishes  with  the  man ;  and,  per 
haps,  being  in  some  degree  reproved  by  our  consciences  for  our  uncharitable 
feelings  during  his  life,  we  endeavor  to  make  amends  by  mscribing  to  his 
memory  a  eulog>',  which,  if  he  still  lived,  we  should  pronounce  undeserved 
liattcry,  if  spoken  by  others,  and  which  would  never  have  proceeded  from 
our  own  lips,  except  in  irony.  In  such  a  case,  an  epitaph  usually  begins 
by  gravely  telling  the  reader  that  we  are  all  mortal,  and  ends  by  commend 
ing  the  soul  of  the  defunct  to  heaven ! 

*'  But,  though  epitaphs  give  us,  generally,  exaggerated  characters,  yet  I 
would  not  have  it  otherwise.  Our  churchyards  should  be  schools  of  moral- 
ity and  religion.  Every  tiling  we  see  there,  of  coui-se,  reminds  us  of  deatli ; 
and  it  wonld  appear  to  us  sacrilege,  if  wo  should  behold  any  i-ecord  of  vice. 
Since  everywhere  we  find  virtue  ascribed  to  the  tenants  ot  the  place,  their 
death,  and  death  in  general,  vdW  not  be  to  us  so  terrible  and  gloomy  a  sub- 
ject of  reliection ;  yet  will  produce  such  a  serious  turn  of  mind  as  will  lead 
k>  religious  meditation,  which  always  has  the  eft'ect  of  calmir^  the  passions 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  291 


Example. 

EliEGY   WRITTEN   IN   A    COUNTRY    CHURCHYARD. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day ; 

The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea ; 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 

And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight, 

And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds ; 
Save  where  the  beetle  wheels  his  droning  flight, 

And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds. 

Save  that,  from  yonder  ivy-mantled  tower, 
The  moping  owl  does  to  the  moon  complain 

Of  such  as,  wandering  near  her  secret  bower, 
Molest  her  ancient  solitary  reign. 

and  facilitates,  in  a  great  degree,  our  conquest  over  them,  and  the  infro 
quency  of  which  is  the  cause  of  most  of  our  transgressions. 

"  Eulogizing  epitaphs  give  us  a  more  exalted  idea  of  the  power  of  religion, 
to  which  they  chiefly  have  reference ;  and  therefore  have,  in  some  measure, 
the  force  of  examples.  When  a  person  has  not  been  known  to  the  world  aa 
a  philosopher  and  a  scholar,  or  in  any  other  way  a  distinguished  man,  it  ia 
suflBcient  that  his  epitaph  should  be  calculated  to  excite  tender  and  serious 
feelings.  In  such  a  case,  elegiac  poetry  should  be  congenial  to  those  feel 
ings.  This,  Stewart  says,  may  be  effected  by  the  smoothness  of  the  verse, 
and  the  apparently  easy  recurrence  of  the  rhyines.  Blank  verse  would  be 
peculiarly  mappropriate  to  this  species  of  poetical  composition.  When,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  person  has  been  conspicuous,  as  a  philosopher,  for  instance, 
his  epitaph  should  convey  a  different  lesson ;  by  a  description  of  his  discov& 
ries,  it  should  remind  us  of  what  is  due  from  us  to  science  and  our  feUo-w 
creatures,  besides  suggesting  the  reflection  that  the  greatest  men  must  perish. 

"  Considering  this  quality  desirable  in  an  epitaph  on  a  philosopher,  we 
should  praise  an  epitaph  on  Newton,  which  represented  him  as  the  greatest 
philosopher  the  world  has  ever  seen,  and  is  expressive  also  of  the  gratitude 
which  is  due  to  him,  for  the  improvement  he  has  made  in  the  condition  of 
the  human  race  by  his  discoveries.  I  think  that  the  above  epitaph,  by  Pope, 
conveys  all  this ;  for  the  observation,  that '  Kature  and  nature's  laws  lay  hid 
in  night,'  implies  that  information  on  the  subject  of  those  laws  would  be 
beneficial  to  mankind,  inasmuch  as  an  idea  of  disadvantage  is  associated 
with  the  word  '  night ;'  and  the  second  line  expresses  that  Newton  alone 
made  the  whole  subject  clear  to  our  minds ;  an  exaggerated  expression,  but 
one  that  certainly  describes  an  exalted  genius.  I  do  not  think,  that  the 
epitaph  redounds  mu?.h  to  the  honor  of  Pope,  except  for  the  felicity  of  the 
expression ;  for  the  idea  would  occur  to  many  minds.  We  should  not,  in 
judging  of  this  couplet,  consider  it  alone,  for,  united  with  the  rest  of  the 
epitaph,  of  which  it  is  but  a  part,  the  whole  together  deserves  much  greater 

S raise  than  is  due  to  either  part  taken  separately.  A  complete  eulogy  on 
[ewton  should  not  be  expected  in  the  inscription  on  his  tomb,  and  therefore 
we  should  not  consider  its  merits  in  that  character.  I  think  that  the  con- 
ciseness of  the  epitaph,  which  is  a  great  recommendation,  wiU  compensate 
and  account  for  whatever  defect  it  may  have  io  giving  us  a  jwtand  exact 
idea  of  Newton^" 


29>i  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

BciXt^ath  those  rugged  elms,  that  yew-tree's  shade. 

Wlicrc  heaves  the  turf  in  many  a  mouldering  heap, 
Each  in  his  narrow  cell  for  ever  laid, 

The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  sleep. 

The  breezy  call  of  incense-breathing  mom. 
The  swallow  twittering  from  the  straw-built  shed. 

The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn. 
No  more  sh&U  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed. 

For  them  no  more  the  blazing  hearth  shall  burn, 
Nor  busy  housewife  ply  her  evening  care ; 

No  children  run  to  lisp  their  sire's  return. 
Or  climb  his  knees  the  envied  kiss  to  share. 

Oft  did  the  harvest  to  their  sickle  yield ; 

Their  furrow  oft  the  stubborn  glebe  has  broke; 
How  jocund  did  they  drive  then-  team  afield  ! 

How  bowed  the  woods  beneath  their  sturdy  stroke 

Let  not  Ambition  mock  their  useful  toil, 
Their  homely  joys  and  destiny  obscure ; 

Nor  Grandeur  hear,  with  a  disdainful  smile, 
The  short  and  simple  annals  of  the  poor. 

The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power 
And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave, 

Await,  alike,  the  inevitable  hour ;  — 
The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 

Nor  you,  ye  proud,  impute  to  these  the  fault, 
If  memory  o'er  their  tomb  no  trophies  raise, 

Where,  through  the  long-drawn  aisle  and  fretted  varit, 
The  pealing  anthem  swells  the  note  of  praise. 

Can  storied  um,  or  animated  bust, 
Back  to  its  mansion  «ill  the  fleeting  breath  ? 

Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust. 
Or  Flattery  soothe  the  dull  cold  ear  of  death  1 

Perhaps,  in  this  neglected  spot,  is  laid 
Some  heart,  once  pregnant  with  celestial  fire ; 

Hands,  that  the  rod  of  empire  might  have  swayod. 
Or  waked  to  ecstasy  tlic  living  lyre : 

But  Knowledge  to  their  eyes  her  ample  page. 
Rich  with  the  spoils  of  time,  did  ne'er  unroll ; 

Cliill  l*cnury  repressed  their  noble  rage. 
And  froze  the  genial  current  of  the  soul. 

Pull  many  a  gem,  of  purest  ray  serene, 
The  dark,  unfathomed  caves  of  ocean  bear; 

Fall  many  a  flower  is  bom  to  blush  unseen. 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITiOtt.  29<t 

Some  village  Hampden,  that,  with  dauntless  breast, 

The  little  tyrant  of  his  fields  withstood ; 
Some  mute,  inglorious  Milton  here  may  rest ; 

Some  Cromwell,  guiltless  of  his  country's  blood. 

The  applause  of  listening  senates  to  command, 

The  threats  of  pain  and  ruin  to  despise. 
To  scatter  plenty  o'er  a  smiling  land, 

And  read  their  history  in  a  nation's  eyes, 

Their  lot  forbade :  nor  cu'cumscribed  alone, 

Their  growing  virtues,  but  their  crimes  confined  ;— 

Forbade  to  wade  through  slaughter  to  a  tlirone, 
And  shut  the  gates  of  mercy  on  mankind ; 

The  struggling  pangs  of  conscious  Truth  to  hide. 

To  quench  the  blushes  of  ingenuous  Shame ; 
Or  heap  the  shrine  of  Luxury  and  Pride 

With  incense  kindled  at  the  muse's  flame. 

Far  from  the  maddening  crowd's  ignoble  stiife. 

Their  sober  wishes  never  learnt  to  stray : 
Along  the  cool,  sequestered  vale  of  life 

They  kept  the  noiseless  tenor  of  their  way. 

Yet  even  these  bones  from  insult  to  protect, 

Some  frail  memorial,  still  erected  nigh. 
With  uncouth  rhymes  and  shapeless  sculptuM  decked, 

Implores  th^  passmg  tribute  of  a  sigh. 

Their  names,  their  years,  spelled  by  the  uuliitterM  MnSi, 

The  place  of  fame  and  elegy  supply ; 
And  many  a  holy  text  around  she  strews. 

That  teach  the  ni^tic  moralist  to  die. 

For  who,  to  dumb  forgetfulness  a  prey, 

This  pleasing,  anxious  being  e'er  resigned ; — 
Left  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerful  day, — 

Nor  cast  one  longing,  lingei^ug  look  behind  ? 

On  some  fond  breast  the  parting  soul  relies ; 

Some  pious  drops  the  closing  eye  requires ; 
Even  from  the  tomb  the  voice  of  Nature  cries  • 

Even  in  our  ashes  live  their  wonted  fires. 

For  thee,  who,  mindful  of  the  unhonored  dead 

Dost  in  these  lines  their  artless  tale  relate 
If,  chance,  by  lonely  contemplation  led. 

Some  kindred  spirit  shall  inquu-e  thy  fate, 

Haply,  some  hoary-headed  swain  may  say, 

"  Oft  have  we  seen  him,  at  the  peep  of  dawn. 
Brushing,  with  hasty  steps,  the  dews  away, 

To  meet  the  sun  upon  the  upland  lawn. 

25* 


294  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

"  There,  at  the  foot  of  yonder  nodding  beech, 
That  wreathes  its  old  fantastic  roots  so  high, 

His  listless  length  at  noontide  would  he  stretch, 
And  pore  upon  the  brook  that  babbles  by. 

"  Hard  by  yon  wood,  now  smiling,  as  in  scorn. 
Muttering  his  wayward  fancies,  he  would  rove , 

Now  drooping,  woful  wan,  like  one  forlorn, 

Or  crazed  with  care,  or  crossed  with  hopeless  love. 

**  One  mom  I  missed  him  on  the  accustomed  hill, 
Along  the  heath,  and  near  his  favorite  tree ; 

Another  came ;  nor  yet  beside  the  rill. 
Nor  up  the  lawn,  nor  at  the  wood  was  he : 

**  The  next  with  dirges  due,  in  sad  array. 

Slow  through  the  church-way  path  we  saw  him  borno. 

Approach  and  read,  (for  thou  canst  read,)  the  lav, 
Graved  on  the  stone  beneath  yon  aged  thorn. 

EPITAPH. 

Here  rests  hb  head  upon  the  lap  of  earth, 
A  youth,  to  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown : 

Fair  Science  frowned  not  on  his  humble  birth, 
And  Melancholy  marked  him  for  her  own. 

large  was  his  bounty,  and  his  soul  sincere ; 

Heaven  did  a  recompense  as  largely  send :  — 
Ho  gave  to  misery  all  he  had,  —  a  tear ; 

He  gained  from  Heaven  —  'twas  all  he  wished  -  a  friend. 

No  farther  seek  his  merits  to  disclose, 

Nor  draw  his  frailties  from  their  dread  abode,  — 

(There  they^  alike,  in  trembling  hope  repose,) 
Tlie  bosom  of  his  Father  and  his  God. 


LXXIX. 

OF  THE  HIGHER  SPECIES  OF  POETRY. 

The  higher  species  of  poetry  embraces  the  three  following 
.^i visions,  namely: 

1.  Tales  and  Romances. 

2.  Epic  and  Dramatic  Poetry. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  295 

3.  Didactic  and  Descriptive  Poetry.* 

A  Tale  is,  literally,  any  thing  that  is  told,  and  may  relate 
either  real  or  fictitious  events.  When  the  events  related  in 
a  tale  are  believed  really  to  have  happened,  the  tale  is  termed 
history. 

A  Romance  is  a  tale  of  interesting,  or  wonderful  adven- 
tures ;  and  has  its  name  from  those  that  were  recited  by  the 
Troubadours,  (that  is,  inventors,)  or  wandering  minstrels,  of 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries. 

The  tales  of  the  Troubadours  related  principally  to  the  military 
achievements  of  the  crusading  kniglits,  their  gallantry,  and  fidelity 
They  were  delivered  in  a  corrupted  Latin  dialect,  called  Pro  ventral,  or 
Provincial,  by  the  inhabitants  of  Rome,  and  Bomanzo,  or  Romish,  by  the 
Gothic  nations,  and  hence  the  tale  itself  was  called  a  Romance.  Some  of 
them  were  prose,  some  in  verse,  and  some  in  a  miscellaneous  union  of 
prose  narrative  and  song.  But  in  neither  form  were  they  in  all  cases 
worthy  of  the  name  of  poems- 
Novels,  Cliterally,  sometlung  new,)  are  the  adventures  of  imaginary 
persons,  in  which  supernatural  beings  are  not  introduced.  The  novel  is 
generally  also  in  prose.  Whenever  a  power  is  introduced  superior  to 
Siat  of  mortals,  the  novel  is  properly  a  romance.  "  The  Epicurean,"  by 
Moore,  is  an  example  of  this  kind,  which,  although  in  the  form  of  prose, 
is  highly  poetical  in  its  character.  It  is  full  of  imaginative  power,  and 
abounds  in  figures  of  the  most  beautiful  kind,  dressed  in  the  most  glow- 
ing colors. 

That  power,  which  the  poet  introduces,  whatever  it  may  be,  to  accom- 
plish what  mere  human  agency  cannot  efifect,  is  called  the  machinery  of 
the  poem. 

An  Epic  poem  is  a  poetical,  romantic  tale,  embracing  many 
personages  and  many  incidents.  One  general  and  important 
design  must  be  apparent  in  its  construction,  to  which  every 
separate  actor  and  action  must  be  subservient.  The  accounts 
of  these  subordinate  actions  are  called  episodes,  and  should 
not  be  extended  to  a  great  length. 

Examples  of  epic  poems  may  be  seen  in  the  "  Hiad,"  and  "  Odyssey," 
of  Homer,  (translated  by  Pope,)  the  "  JEneid,"  of  Virgil,  (translated  by 
Dryden,)  the  "Pharsalia,"  of  Lucan,  (translated by  Rowe,)  and  the  "Par- 
adise Lost "  of  Milton.  Epic  poems  are  rare  productions,  and  scarcely 
any  nation  can  boast  of  more  than  one. 

The  word  epic  literally  means  nothing  more  than  a  tale.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  tale  concerning  a  hero  or  heroes,  and  hence  epic  poetry  is  also 


*  See  the  piece  entitled  "  The  Empire  of  Poetry,"  by  Fontenelle,  page 
133.  under  the  head  of  Allegory. 


296  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

called  heroic  verse.    Epopea,  or  Epopoeia,  is  merely  a  learned  name  ton 
epic  poem. 

A  Drama  is  a  poem  of  the  epic  kind,  but  so  compressed 
and  adapted,  that  the  whole  tule,  instead  of  requiring  to  be 
read  or  recited  at  intervals,  by  an  individual,  may  be  exhib 
ited  as  actually  passing  before  our  eyes.  Every  actor  in  the 
poem  has  his  representative  on  the  stage,  who  speaks  the  lan- 
guage of  the  poet,  as  if  it  were  his  own ;  and  every  action  is 
literally  performed  or  imitated,  as  if  it  were  of  natural  oc- 
currence. 

As  a  dramatic  writer,  Shakspeare  stands  unrivalled,  among  English 
authors,  and  it  may  well  be  questioned,  whether  any  nation  has  produced 
his  superior. 

In  the  construction  of  a  Drama,  rules  have  been  laid  down  by  critics, 
the  principal  of  which  relate  to  the  three  Unities,  as  they  are  called,  of 
action,  of  time,  and  of  place.  Unity  of  action  requires,  that  a  single  objec; 
should  be  kept  in  view.  No  underplot,  or  secondary  action  is  allowable 
unless  it  tend  to  advance  the  prominent  purpose.  Unity  of  time  requires, 
that  the  events  should  be  limited  to  a  short  period ;  seldom  if  ever  more 
than  a  single  day.  Unity  of  place  requires  the  confinement  of  the  actions 
represented  within  narrow  geographical  limits.  Another  rule  of  dramatic 
criticism  is  termed  poetical  justice ;  by  which  it  is  understO()d,  that  the 
personages  shall  be  rewarded  or  punished,  according  to  their  resjjective 
desert.  A  regular  drama  is  an  historical  picture,  in  which  we  perceive 
unity  of  design,  and  compare  every  portion  of  the  composition,  as  harmo 
nizing  with  the  whole. 

Dramatic  compositions  are  of  two  kinds.  Tragedy  and  Comedy. 
Tragedy  is  designed  to  fill  the  mind  of  the  spectators  with  pity  and 
terror;  comedy  to  represent  some  amusing  and  connected  tale.  The 
muse  of  tragedy,  therefore,  deals  in  desolation  and  death,  —  tliat  of  com- 
edy is  sun-ounded  by  the  humorous,  the  witty,  and  the  gay.  It  is  to 
tragedy  that  we  chiefly  look  for  poetical  embellishment,  and  it  is  there 
only  that  we  look  for  the  sublime.  Accordingly,  it  is,  with  few  excep- 
tions, still  composed  of  measured  lines,  wliile  comedy  is  now  written 
wholly  in  prose. 

A  Prologue  is  a  short  poem,  designed  as  an  introduction  io 
a  discourse  or  performance,  chiefly  the  discourse  or  poem 
spoken  before  a  dramatic  performance  or  play  begins. 

An  Epilogue  is  a  speech,  or  short  poem,  addressed  to  the 
spectators  by  one  of  the  actors,  after  the  conclusion  of  a  dra- 
matic performance.  Sometimes  it  contains  a  recapitulation 
of  the  chief  incidents  of  the  play. 

Farce  is  tlie  caricature  of  comedy,  and  is  restrained  by  no 
law,  not  even  those  of  probability  and  nature.  Its  object  is  to 
excite  mirth  and  uproarous  laughter.     But,  in  some  of  \x» 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  '^97 

forms,  such  as  personal  satire,  occasional  grossness,  and  vul- 
garity, it  has  rendered  itself  so  obnoxious  to  reprobation,  that 
the  very  name  is  an  abomination.     It  is  commonly  in  prose. 

Those  compositions  in  which  the  language  is  so  little  in 
unison  with  the  subject  as  to  impress  the  mind  with  a  feeling 
of  the  ridiculous,  are  called  Burlesques. 

The  Burletta  is  a  species  of  composition  in  which  persons 
and  actions  of  no  value  are  made  to  assume  an  air  of  impor- 
tance. Or,  it  is  that  by  which  things  of  real  consequence  are 
degraded,  so  as  to  seem  objects  of  derision. 

Parodies,  Travesties,  and  Mock  Heroics  are  ludicrous  imi- 
tations of  serious  subjects.     They  belong  to  the  burlesque.* 

*  As  a  happy  illustration  of  burlesque  writing  in  several  different  styles, 
the  following  are  presented  from  Bentley's  Miscellany,  with  the  facetious 
introductioq  with  which  they  are  prefaced : 

"  But  another  class  of  persons  claims  our  attention.  We  mean  those  who 
are,  for  some  cause  or  other,  constantly  called  upon  to  write  verses.  Now, 
many  of  those,  when  suddenly  required  to  make  a  song  to  a  given  ttme,  to 
scribble  a  cLorus  for  the  end  of  a  farce,  or  to  jot  down  an  impromptu  on  tb  • 
blue  leaf  of  an  album,  suddenly  find  themselves  at  a  nonplus,  —  not  because 
they  are  not  masters  of  rhyme 'and  metre,  but  simply  because  they  cannot 
get  a  subject.  We  propose  to  show,  that,  far  from  this  want  being  a  just 
cause  for  embarrassment,  it  is  absolutely  impossible  not  to  find  a  subject 
The  first  thing  that  catches  the  eye,  or  comes  into  the  head,  wiU  do,  and 
may  be  treated  in  every  manner.  In  this  age,  although  a  chosen  few  can 
fill  the  post  of  fiddler,  opera-dancer,  juggler,  or  clown  to  the  ring,  these  oc- 
cupations requiring  innate  genius,  he  who  cannot  become  a  poet  is  a  very 
poor  creatu.-e.  But,  to  our  task.  We  take  the  Dodo,  that  ugly  bird,  which 
every  child  knoAvs  from  its  picture  in  the  books  on  natural  history,  as  a 
subject  that  seems  of  all  others  the  least  promising,  and  we  shall  show  oui 
readers  how  artistically  we  can  manage  it  in  all  sorts  of  styles. 

I.  The  Descriptive.  —  For  this  we  must  go  to  our  encyclopedias,  cram 
for  the  occasion,  and  attentively  observe  the  picture.  '  Our  Rees  '  tells  ua 
that  the  Latin  name  for  the  bird  is  ♦  Didus,'  that  the  Dutch  are  said  to  have 
found  it  in  the  Mauritius,  and  called  it  *  Dodaerts ;  *  while  the  French 
termed  it '  Cygne  a  Capuchon  ; '  and  the  Portuguese,  *  Dodo.  Its  exist 
ence,  it  seems,  has  been  doubted,  and  at  all  events  it  is  now  supposed  to  be 
extinct. 

In  the  island  of  Mauritius  once  a  sturdy  Dutchman  found 
Such  a  curious  bird  as  ne'er  before  was  seen  to  tread  the  ground ; 
Straight  he  caUed  it '  Dodaerts ; '  when  a  Frenchman  gazed  upon 
Its  hood  of  down,  and  said  it  was  a  '  Cygne  a  Capuchon.' 

French  and  Dutch  might  be  content  with  making  sorry  names  like  these 
But  they  would  not  satisfy  the  proud  and  high-souled  Portuguese ; 
He  proclaimed  the  bird  a  '  Dodo.'     '  Dodo '  now  each  infant  cries. 
Pedants,  they  may  call  it '  Didus ; '  but  such  pedants  we  despise. 

'T  was  a  mighty  bird ;  those  short,  strong  legs  were  never  known  to  fail, 
And  he  felt  a  glow  of  pride  when  thinking  of  that  little  tail ; 
And  his  beak  was  marked  with  vigor,  curving  like  a  wondrous  hook, 
Thick  and  ugly  was  his  body,  —  such  a  form  as  made  one  look. 


298  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Didactit!  poetry  is  that  which  is  written  professedly^  for  the 
purpose  of  instruction.  Descriptive  poetry  merely  describes 
the  person  or  the  object. 

Didactic  poetry  sjould  be  replete  with  ornament,  especially,  where  it 
can  be  done,  with  figurative  language.  This  rule  should  be  preserved  in 
order  to  keep  up  the  interest  in  tlie  subject,  which  is  usually  dry.  Not 
even  the  epic  demands  such  glowing  and  picturesque  epithets,  such  dar- 
ing and  forcible  metaphors,  such  pomp  of  numbers  and  dignity  of  expres- 
sion, as  the  didactic ;  for,  the  lower  or  more  familiar  the  object  described 
is,  the  greater  must  be  tJie  power  of  language  to  preserve  it  from  debase- 
ment. Didactic  and  descriptive  poetry  arc  so  intimately  allied,  that  tho 
two  kinds  can  rarely  be  found  asunder,  and  we  give  a  poem  this  or  that 
denomination,  according  as  the  one  or  the  other  of  these  characteristics 
appears  to  predominate. 

No  one  now  can  see  the  dodo,  which  the  sturdy  Dutchman  found ; 
Long  aeo  those  wondrous  stumps  of  legs  have  ceased  to  tread  the  ground. 
If,  perchance,  his  bones  we  find,  oh,  let  us  gently  turn  them  o'er, 
Saying, '  'T  was  a  gallant  world  when  dodos  lived  in  days  of  yore.* 

II.  The  Melancholy  Sentimental.  —  We  need  only  recollect,  that 
When  the  dodo  lived,  somebody  else  lived,  who  is  not  living  now,  and  w« 
have  our  cue  at  once. 

Oh,  when  the  dodo's  feet 

His  native  island  pressed, 
How  many  a  warm  neart  beat 

Within  a  living  breast, 
Which  now  can  beat  no  more, 

But  crumbles  into  dust. 
And  finds  its  turn  is  o'er, 

As  all  things  earthly  must ! 

He  'a  dead  that  nam'd  tho  bird, 

That  gallant  Portuguese ; 
Who  weeps  not,  having  heard 

Of  changes  such  as  tnese  ? 
The  Dutchman,  too,  is  gone : 

The  dodo 's  gone  beside ; 
They  teach  us  every  one 

How  vain  is  earthly  pride ' 

III.  iMPFOMPTuybr  a  lady's  album. 

Tho  dodo  vanished,  as  we  must  confess, 
Being  unfit  to  live  from  ugliness; 
Surely,  methinks,  it  will  not  bo  too  bold 
To  hope  the  converse  of  the  rule  will  hold. 
If  bvcly  things  no  power  from  earth  can  sever, 
Ceia,  wo  all  may  swear,  will  live  forever. 

IV    Bacchanalian,  with  full  chorus. 

Tho  dodo  once  lived,  and  ho  does  n't  live  now ; 
Yet,  why  should  a  cloud  overshadow  our  brow  ? 
The  loss  of  tliat  bird  no'er  should  troable  our  brainft. 
For,  though  he  is  ^one,  still  our  claret  remains. 

Sing  dodo  —  dodo  —  jolly  dodo  1 
Hurrah !  in  his  name  let  our  cups  overflow ! 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  299 

As  examples  of  didactic  poetry,  the  student  is  referred  to  Pope's 
■*  Moral  Essays ; "  and,  for  instances  of  descriptive  poetry,  to  his  "  Wind- 
sor Forest,"  to  Milton's  "  L' Allegro,"  and  "  II  Penseroso,"  and  to  Thom- 
son's "  Seasons." 

Among  the  examples  of  didactic  poetry,  Akenside's  "  Pleasm-es  of  the 
Imagination,"  and  Young's  "  Night  Thoughts,"  should  not  be  forgotten.* 
In  the  opinion  of  Johnson,  the  versification  of  the  former  work  is  con- 
sidered equal,  if  not  superior,  to  that  of  any  other  specimen  of  blank  verse 
in  the  language.  Of  Young's  "Night  Thoughts"  it  may  be  said,  al- 
though it  has  been  stigmatized  as  a  long,  lugubrious  poem,  opposed  in  its 
composition  to  every  rule  of  sound  criticism,  full  of  extravagant  meta- 
phors, astounding  hyperboles,  and  never-ending  antitheses,  that  few 
poems  in  any  language  present  such  a  concentration  of  thought,  such  a 
rich  fund  of  poetical  beauties,  so  numerous  and  brilliant  corruscations  of 
genius,  and  so  frequent  occurrence  of  passages  of  the  pathetic  and  the 
subUme.  t 


*  Another  class  of  poems,  uniting  the  didactic  and  the  descriptive 
classes,  ma^  be  mentioned,  which  are  called  the  Sentimental.  "  The 
Pleasures  of  Memory,"  by  Rogers,  "  The  Pleasures  of  Hope,"  by  Camp- 
bell, belong  to  this  class.  "  The  Deserted  Village,"  and  "  The  Traveller," 
by  Goldsmith,  are  of  the  same  class,  and  can  scarcely  be  too  highly 
estimated. 

t  The  author  has  here,  as  in  some  other  parts  of  the  preceding  remarks, 
departed  from  the  expressions  of  Mr.  Booth,  to  whose  excellent  work  on 
the  principles  of  English  Composition  he  is  largely  indebted,  here  as  else 
where,  in  this  volume. 


We  know  that  he  perished ;  yet  why  shed  a  tear ! 
This  generous  bowl  all  our  bosoms  can  cheer. 
The  dodo  is  gone,  and,  no  doubt,  in  his  day, 
He  delighted,  as  we  do,  to  moisten  his  clay. 

Sing  dodo  —  dodo  — jolly  dodo  ! 
Hurrah !  in  his  name  let  our  cups  overflow  ! 

V.  The  Remonstrative,  addressed  to  those  who  do  not  believe  there 
ev^r  was  a  dodo. 

What !  disbelieve  the  dodo  ! 

The  like  was  never  neard ! 
Deprive  the  face  of  nature 

Of  such  a  wondrous  bird ! 
I  always  loved  the  dodo. 

When  quite  a  little  boy, 
I  saw  it  in  my  "  Goldsmith,'' 

My  heart  beat  high  with  joy. 

I  think  now  how  my  uncle 

One  morning  went  to  town 
He  brought  me  home  a  "  Goldsmith," 

Which  cost  him  half  a  crown. 
No  picture  like  the  dodo 

Such  rapture  could  impart ; 
Then  don't  deny  the  dodo, 

It  wounds  mv  inmost  heart." 


iJOO  AID8    TO    ENGLISU    COMPOSITION. 

Satires  are  discourses  or  poems  in  which  wickedness  and 
folly  are  exposed  with  sevsrity,  or  held  up  to  ridicule.  They 
differ  from  Lampoons  and  Pasquinades,  in  being  general^ 
rather  than  personal,  and  from  sarcasm,  in  not  expressing 
contempt  oi  scom< 

Satires  aro  usually  mcluded  under  the  head  of  didactic  poems,  but 
f  very  class  of  poems  may  include  the  satirical.  In  satires  it  is  the  class, 
the  crime,  or  tne  folly,  which  is  the  proper  object  of  attack,  and  not  the 
individual. 

A  Lampoon,  or  Pasquinade,  is  a  personal  satire,  written 
with  the  intention  of  reproaching,  irritating,  or  vexing  the  in- 
dividual, rather  than  to  reform  him.  It  is  satisfied  with  low 
abuse  and  vituperation,  rather  than  with  proof  or  argument. 

An  Apophthegm,  Apothegm,  or  Apothem,  is  a  short,  sen- 
tentious,  instructive  remark,  usually  in  prose,  but  rarely  in 
verse,  uttered  on  a  particular  occasion,  or  by  a  distinguished 
character ;  as  that  of  Cato : 

"  Men,  by  doing  nothing,  soon  learn  to  do  mischief" 


LXXX. 

STYLE. 


•*  hox  different  styles  with  different  subjects  sort, 
As  different  garbs  with  country  town  and  court." 

^li  the  Introduction  to  this  volume,  it  was  stated  that  the 
most  obvious  divisions  of  Composition,  with  respect  to  the 
nature  of  its  subjects,  are  the  Narrative,  tlie  Descriptive,  the 
Didactic,  the  Persuasive,  the  Pathetic,  and  the  Argumenta* 
tive.  The  Narrative  division  embraces  the  relation  of  facts 
and  events,  real  or  fictitious.  The  Descriptive  division  in- 
cludes descriptions  of  all  kinds.  The  Didactic  division  com- 
prehends, as  its  name  implies,  all  kinds  of  pieces  which  are 
designed  to  convey  instruction.  The  Pathetic  division  em- 
oraces  such  writings  as  are  calculated  to  affect  the  feelings,  or 
excite  the  passions ;  and  the  Argumentative  division  includes 
ihose  only  which  arc  addressed  to  the  understanding,  with  the 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  301 

intention  of  affecting  the  judgment.  These  different  divisions 
of  composition  are  not  always  preserved  distinct,  but  are 
sometimes  united  or  mixed.  With  regard  to  forms  of  expres- 
sion, a  writer  may  express  his  ideas  m  various  ways,  thus 
laying  the  foundation  of  a  distinction  called  Style. 

Style,  is  defined  by  Dr.  Blair,  to  be  "  the  peculiar  manner 
in  which  a  writer  expresses  his  thoughts  by  words." 

Various  terms  are  applied  to  style  to  express  its  character,  as  a  harsh 
style,  a  dry  style,  a  tumid  or  bombastic  style,  a  loose  style  a  terse  style,  a 
laconic  or  a  yerbose  style,  a  flowing  style,  a  lofty  style,  an  elegant  style 
an  epistolary  style,  a  formal  style,  a  familiar  style,  &c. 

The  divisions  of  style,  as  given  by  Dr.  Blair,  are  as  follows  :  The  dif- 
fuse and  the  concise,  the  nervous  and  the  feeble,  the  dry,  the  plain,  the 
neat,  the  elegant  and  the  florid,  the  simple,  the  affected,  and  the  vehe- 
ment. These  terms  are  altogether  arbitrary,  and  are  not  uniformly  ad 
opted  in  every  treatise  on  rhetoric.  Some  writers  use  the  terms  barren 
and  luxuriant,  forcible  and  vehement,  elevated  and  dignified,  idiomatic, 
easy  and  animated,  &c.,  in  connexion  with  the  terms,  or  some  of  the 
terms,  employed  by  Dr.  Blair. 

The  character  of  style,  and  the  term  by  which  it  is  designated,  depends 
partly  on  the  clearness  and  fulness  with  which  the  idea  is  expressed, 
partly  on  the  degree  of  ornament  or  of  figurative  language  employed,  and 
partly  on  the  nature  of  the  ideas  themselves. 

The  terms  concise,  diflfuse,  nervous,  and  feeble,  refer  to  the  clearness,  the 
fulness,  and  the  force  with  which  the  idea  is  expressed.  Dry,  plain,  neat, 
and  florid,  are  terms  used  to  express  the  degree  of  ornament  employed ; 
while  the  character  of  the  thoughts  or  ideas  themselves  is  expressed  by  the 
names  of  simple  or  natural,  affected  and  vehement. 

A  concise  *  writer  compresses  his  ideas  into  the  fewest  words,  and  theso 
the  most  expressive. 

A  diffuse  writer  unfolds  his  idea  fully,  by  placing  it  in  a  variety  of  lights. 

A  nervous  writer  gives  us  a  strong  idea  of  his  meaning — his  words  are 
always  expressive  —  every  phrase  and  every  figure  renders  the  picture 
which  he  would  set  before  us  more  striking  and  complete. 

A  feeble  writer  has  an  indistinct  view  of  his  subject ;  unmeaning  words 
and  loose  epithets  escape  him  ;  his  expressions  are  vague  and  general,  his 
arrangements  indistinct,  and  our  conception  of  his  meaning  will  be  faint 
and  confused. 

*  Under  the  head  of  Conciseness  in  style  may  be  noticed  what  is  called  the  Laconic 
Style,  from  the  inhabitants  of  Laconia,  who  were  remarkable  for  using  few  words.  As 
an  instance  of  that  kind  of  style,  may  be  mentioned  the  celebrated  reply  of  Leonidas 
kins?  of  Sparta  to  Xerxes,  who,  with'his  army  of  over  a  million  of  men,  was  opposed 
bv  Leonidas,  with  only  three  hundred.  When  Xerxes  sent  to  him  with  the  haughty 
direction  to  lay  down  his  arms,  the  Spartan  king  replied,  with  characteristic  brevity, 
*•  Come  and  take  them." 

Another  instance  of  the  same  is  afforded  in  the  celebrated  letter  of  Dr.  Franklin  to 
Rlr.  Strahan,  which  is  in  these  words  : 

"Philadelphia,  July  6th,  1775, 
"Mr.  Strahan, 

*'  You  are  a  member  of  that  Parliament,  and  have  formed  part  of  that  majority, 
which  has  condemned  my  native  country  to  destruction. 

"  You  have  begun  to  burn  our  towns,  and  to  destroy  their  Inhabitants. 

"  Look  at  your  hands,  —  they  are  stained  with  the  blood  of  your  relations  and  yoof 
acquaintances. 

"  You  and  I  were  long  friends ;  you  are  at  present  my  enemy,  and  I  am  yours. 

' '  Benjamin  Franklin. ' ' 

26 


302  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

A  dry  writer  uses  no  ornament  of  any  kind,  and,  content  with  being 
onderstood,  aims  not  to  please  the  fancy  or  the  ear. 

A  plain  writer  employs  very  little  ornament ;  he  observes  perspicuity, 
propriety,  purity,  and  precision  in  his  language,  but  attempts  none  of  the 
praces  of  composition.  A  dry  writer  is  incapable  of  ornament,  —  a  plain 
writer  goes  not  m  pursuit  of  it. 

A  neat  writer  is  careful  in  the  choice  of  his  words,  and  the  graceful 
collocation  of  them.  His  sentences  are  free  from  the  encumbrances  of 
fuperfluous  words,  and  his  figures  are  short  and  accurate,  rather  than  bold 
ind  glowing. 

An  elegant  writer  possesses  all  the  graces  of  ornament,  —  polished  perioda, 
figurative  language,  harmonious  expressions,  and  a  great  degree  or  purity 
n  the  choice  of  lus  words,  all  characterized  by  perspicuity  and  propriety. 
He  is  one,  in  short,  who  delights  the  fancy  and  the  ear,  while  he  informs 
the  understanding. 

A  florid  or  flowery  writer  is  characterized  by  excess  of  ornament ;  and 
seems  to  be  more  intent  on  beauty  of  language  than  solidity  of  thought. 

A  simple  or  natural  writer  is  distinguished  by  simplicity  of  plan;  he 
makes  his  thoughts  appear  to  rise  naturally  from  his  subject;  he  has  no 
marks  of  art  in  his  expressions,  and  although  he  may  be  characterized  by 
great  richness  both  of  language  and  imagination,  he  appears  to  write  in  that 
way  not  because  he  had  studied  it,  but  because  it  is  the  mode  of  expression 
most  natural  to  him. 

An  affected  writer  is  the  very  reverse  of  a  simple  one.  He  uses  words 
in  uncommon  meanings  —  employs  pompous  expressions  —  and  his  whole 
manner  is  cliaracterized  by  singularity  rather  than  by  beauty. 

A  vehement  writer  uses  strong  expressions  —  is  characterized  by  con- 
siderable warmth  of  manner — and  presents  his  ideas  clearly  and  fully  be- 
fore us.  * 

The  following  directions  are  given  by  Dr.  Blair  for  attaimng  a  good  style : 

The  first  direction  is,  study  clear  ideas  of  the  subject  on  which  you  are 
to  write  or  speak.  What  wo  conceive  clearly  and  feel  strongly,  we  natur 
ally  express  with  clearness  and  strength. 

Secondly,  to  the  acquisition  of  a  good  style,  frequency  of  composing  is 
indispensably  necessary.  But  it  is  not  every  kind  of  composition  that  will 
improve  style.  By  a  careless  and  hasty  habit  of  writing,  a  bad  style  will 
be  acquired.  In  the  beginning,  therefore,  we  ought  to  write  slowly  and 
with  much  care.    Facility  and  speed  are  the  fruit  of  experience. 

Thirdly,  acquauitanco  with  the  style  of  the  best  authors  is  peculiarly 
requisite.  Hence  a  just  taste  will  be  formed,  and  a  copious  fund  of  words 
supplied  on  every  subject.  No  exercise,  perhaps,  will  bo  found  more  use- 
ful for  acquiring  a 'proper  stylo,  than  translating  some  passage  from  an 
eminent  author  in  our  own  words,  and  then  comparing  what  wo  have  written 
with  the  style  of  tlie  author.  Such  an  exercise  will  show  us  our  defects 
will  teach  us  to  correct  them,  and,  from  the  variety  of  expression  which  it 
will  exhibit,  will  conduct  us  to  that  which  is  most  beautiful. 

Fourthly,  caution  must  bo  used  against  servile  imitation  of  any  author 
whatever.  Desire  of  imitating  hampera  genius,  and  generally  produces 
stillness  of  expression.  They  who  copy  an  author  closely,  commonly  copy 
his  faults  as  well  as  his  beauties.  It  is  much  better  to  have  sometHing  or 
our  ovm,  thougii  of  moderate  beauty,  than  to  shine  in  bon-owed  ornaments 
which  will  at  last  betray  tlie  poverty  of  our  genius. 


•  The  student  who  would  sec  the  suhlcct  of  style  treated  with  jrrcat  clearness  and 
be»aty,  will  tin'*  .t  treated  with  much  cIcRance  and  ability  In  '*  Newman's  lihelorici:" 
Uia  remark*  on  Tivaclty  of  stylo  arc  particularly  recommended  to  the  careful  study 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  303 

Fifthly,  always  adapt  your*  style  to  the  subject,  and  likewise  to  the 
capacity  of  your  hearers  or  readers.  When  we  are  to  write  or  to  speak, 
we  should  previously  fix  in  our  minds  a  clear  idea  of  the  end  aimed  at ; 
keep  tliis  steadily  in  view,  and  adapt  our  style  to  it.  f 

Lastly,  let  not  attention  to  style  engross  us  *  so  much,  as  to  prevent  a 
ttigher  degree  of  attention  to  the  thoughts.  He  is  a  contemptible  writer, 
who  looks  not  beyond  the  dress  of  language  ;  who  lays  not  the  chief  stress 
upon  his  matter,  and  employs  pot  such  ornaments  of  style  as  are  manly 
not  foppish. 


LXXXI. 


DIRECTIONS  TO  STUDENTS  IN  REVISING  AND  COK- 
RECTING  THEIR  COMPOSITIONS,  BEFORE  THEY  ARE 
PRESENTED  TO  THE  TEACHER. 

Read  over  your  exercise  to  ascertain,  1.  whether  the  words 
are  correctly  spelled ;  2.  the  pauses  and  capital  letters  are 
properly  used ;  3.  that  the  possessive  case  is  correctly  written 
with  the  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s ;  4.  the  hyphen  placed 
between  the  parts  of  a  compound  word,  and  also  used  at  the 
end  of  the  line  when  part  of  the  word  is  in  one  line  and 
another  part  in  the  succeeding  line  (recollecting,  in  this  case, 
that  the  letters  of  the  same  syllable  must  all  be  ivritfen  in  the 
same  line)  ;  5.  that  the  marks  of  quotation  are  inserted  when 
you  have  borrowed  a  sentence  or  an  expression  from  any  one 
else ;  6.  whether  the  pronouns  are  all  of  the  same  number 
with  their  antecedents,  and  the  verbs  of  the  same  number 
with  their  nominatives  ;  7.  whether  you  can  get  rid  of  some 
of  the  "  ands  "  in  your  exercise,  by  means  of  the  rules  laid 
down  in  Lesson  XX.,  and  whether  some  other  words  may 
not  be  omitted  without  weakening  the  expression,  and  also 


•  The  change  of  persons  in  these  rules,  if  not  absolutely  faulty,  is  certainly  inele- 
gant.   The  language  is  literally  taken  from  the  abridgment  of  Dr.  Blair's  Bhetorick, 

t  Two  of  the  greatest  faults  that  can  be  committed  in  writing  consist  in  degrading 
a  subject  naturally  elevated,  by  low  expressions ;  —  and  the  expressing  a  mean  ot 
trivial  idea  by  high  sounding  epithets.  The  former  is  called  Bathos ;  —  and  the  lattei 
Bombast. 

The  student  who  wishes  for  specimens  of  the  various  kinds  of  style  men 
tloned  above,  will  find  quite  a  collection  of  them  arranged  under  their  appropriatt 
Beads,  for  examples  in  rhetoric,  in  a  volume  recently  prepared  by  Mrs.  L.  C.  TuthUl 
and  pnntpd  and  published  by  S.  Babcock,  of  New  Haven,  called  *'  The  Young  Ladies 
Reader. "  It  was  the  author's  design  to  insert  such  specmiens  in  this  volume,  but  h« 
finds  it  necessary  to  reserve  the  space  which  they  would  occirpy  for  other  mattei 
which  he  deems  more  important  to  the  completion  of  his  plan.  For  the  same  reason 
he  has  omitted  the  specimens  which  he  intended  to  present  in  the  respective  depart 
ments  of  Narrative.  Descriptlrc,  Didactic,  Pathetic,  and  Argumentative  writing. 


304  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMrOSITION. 

whether  yoa  have  introduced  all  the  words  necessary  for  the 
full  expression  of  your  ideas ;  8.  whether  you  have  repeated 
the  same  word  in  the  same  sentence,  or  in  any  sentence  near 
it,  and  have  thus  been  betrayed  into  a  tautology  (See  Lesson 
XXII.)  ;  9.  whether  you  cannot  divide  some  of  your  long 
sentences  into  shorter  ones,  and  thereby  better  preserve  the 
unity  of  the  sentence  (See  Lesson  XXXI.)  ;  and  lastly, 
whether  part  or  parts  of  your  exercise  may  not  be  divided 
into  separate  paragraphs. 

The  following  rules  must  also  he  observed. 

1.  No  abbreviations  are  allowable  in  prose,  and  numbers  (except  in 
dates)  must  be  expressed  in  words,  not  in  figures. 

2.  In  all  cases,  excepting  where  despatch  is  absolutely  necessary,  the 
character  &,  and  others  of  a  similar  nature,  must  not  be  used,  but  the 
whole  word  must  be  written  out 

3.  The  letters  of  the  same  syllable  must  always  be  written  in  the  same 
line.  When  there  is  not  room  in  a  line  for  all  the  letters  of  a  syllable, 
they  must  all  be  carried  into  the  next  Une ;  and  when  a  word  is  divided 
by  placing  one  or  more  of  the  syllables  in  one  line,  and  the  remainder  in 
the  foUomng  line,  the  hj'phen  must  always  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
former  line. 

4.  The  title  of  the  piece  must  always  be  in  a  line  by  itself,  and  should 
be  written  in  larger  letters  than  the  exercise  itself. 

5.  The  exercise  should  be  commenced  not  at  the  extreme  left  hand  of 
the  line,  but  a  little  towards  the  right.  Every  separate  paragraph  should 
also  commence  in  the  same  way. 

6.  The  crotchets  or  brackets  which  enclose  a  parenthesis  should  be 
used  as  sparingly  as  possible.    Their  place  may  often  be  snppUcd  by 


Suggestions  to  Teachers  with  regard  to  the  written  exercises 
of  Students. 

1.  Examine  the  exercise  in  reference  to  all  those  points 
laid  do\vn  in  the  directions  for  students  in  reviewing  and  cor 
reeling  their  compositions.     (See  page  303.) 

2.  Merits  for  composition  should  be  predicated  on  their 
neatness,  correctness,  (in  the  particulars  stated  in  the  direc 
tions  to  pupils,  page  303),  length,  style,  &c. ;  but  the  highest 
merits  should  be  given  for  the  strongest  evidence  of  intellect 
in  the  production  of  ideas,  and  origmal  sentiments  and  forms 
ni  expression. 

3.  Words  that  are  misspelt,  should  be  spelled  by  the  whole 
I'lass,  aiMd  those  words  which  are  frequently  misspelt  should 


A.IDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  305 

be  recorded  in  a  book  kept  for  that  purpose,  and  occasionally 
spelt  on  the  slate  by  the  class. 

4.  Keep  a  book  in  which  the  student  may  have  the  privi- 
lege to  record  such  compositions  as  are  of  superior  merit. 
This  book  should  be  kept  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher,  and  re- 
main the  permanent  property  of  the  institution.  This  will 
have  an  excellent  effect,  especially  if  additional  merits  are 
given  for  the  recording  of  a  composition. 

5.  A  short  lecture  on  the  subject  of  the  composition  as 
signed  to  a  class,  showing  its  bearings,  its  divisions,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  should  be  treated,  will  greatly  facilitate 
their  progress,  and  interest  them  in  the  exercise. 

6.  Ha\se  a  set  of  arbitrary  marks,  which  should  be  ex- 
plained and  understood  by  the  class,  by  which  the  exercise 
should  be  corrected.  This  is,  in  fact,  nothing  less  than  a 
method  of  short  hand,  and  will  save  the  trouble  of  much 
writing. 

7.  Insist  upon  the  point,  that  the  exercise  should  be  writ- 
ten in  the  st  udent's  best  hand,  with  care,  and  without  haste. 
For  this  purpose,  ample  time  should  always  be  allowed  for 
the  production  of  the  exercise.  A  week  at  least,  if  not  a 
lortnight,  should  intervene  between  the  assigning  and  the  re- 
quiring of  the  exercise.  Negligence  in  the  mechanical 
3xecution,  will  induce  the  neglect  of  the  more  important 
qualities. 

8.  Require  the  compositions  to  be  written  on  alternate 
pages,  leaving  one  page  blank,  for  such  remarks  as  may  be 
suggested  by.  the  exercise,  or  for  supplying  such  words  or 
sentences  as  may  have  accidentally  been  omitted. 

9.  In  correcting  the  exercises,  care  should  be  taken  to 
preserve  as  much  as  possible  the  ideas  which  the  pupil  in- 
tended to  express,  making  such  alterations  only  as  are  neces- 
sary to  give  them  clearness,  unity,  strength,  and  harmony, 
and  a  proper  connexion  with  the  subject,  for  it  is  the  stu- 
dent's own  idea  which  ought  to  be  "  taught  how  to  shoot." 
An  idea  thus  humored  will  thrive  better  than  one  which  is 
not  a  native  of  the  soil. 

10.  It  is  recommended  that  a  uniformity  be  required  in 
the  size  and  quality  of  the  paper  of  the  exercises  of  the  class 
—  that  the  name  (real  or  fictitious)  of  the  writer,  together 
with  the  date  and  number  of  the  composition,  be  placed  con- 
spicuously on  the  back  of  the  exercise.     The  writing  should 

20* 


306  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

be  plain  and  without  ornament,  so  that,  no  room  bein^  left  for 
flourish  or  display,  the  principal  attention  of  each  student  may 
be  devoted  to  the  language  and  the  sentiments  of  his  perform- 
ances. It  is  also  recommended,  that  the  paper  on  which  the 
exercise  is  written  be  a  letter  sheet  folded  once,  or  in  quarto 
form,  making  four  leaves  or  eight  pages.  This  form  is  of  use, 
especially  in  the  earlier  stages  of  his  progress,  because  it  en- 
ables him  more  easily  to  fill  a  page,  and  encourages  him  with 
the  idea  that  he  is  making  progress  in  his  exercise.  In  the 
writing  of  compositions,  a  task  to  which  all  students  addi'ess 
themselves  with  reluctance,  nothing  should  be  omitted  by  the 
feacher,  however  trivial  it  may  at  first  appear,  by  which  he 
may  stimulate  the  student  to  exertion. 

11.  Accommodate  the  corrections  to  the  style  of  the  stu- 
dent's own  production.  An  aim  at  too  great  correctness  may 
possibly  cramp  the  genius  too  much,  by  rendering  the  student 
timid  and  diffident ;  or  perhaps  discourage  him  altogether,  by 
producing  absolute  despair  of  arriving  at  any  degree  of  per- 
fection. For  this  reason,  the  teacher  should  show  the  student 
where  he  has  erred,  either  in  the  thought,  the  structure  of 
the  sentence,  the  syntax,  or  the  choice  of  words.  Every  al- 
teration, as  has  already  been  observed,  should  differ  as  little 
as  possible  from  what  the  student  has  written ;  as  giving  an 
entire  new  cast  to  the  thought  and  expression  will  lead  him 
into  an  unknown  path  not  easy  to  follow,  and  divert  his  mind 
from  that  original  line  of  thinking  which  is  natural  to  him. 

12.  In  large  institutions,  where  a  class  in  composition  is 
numerous,  the  teacher  may  avail  himself  of  the  assistance  of 
the  more  advanced  students,  by  requiring  them  to  inspect  the 
exercises  of  the  younger.  This  must  be  managed  with  great 
delicacy  ;  and  no  allusion  be  allowed  to  be  made  out  of  the 
recitation  room,  by  the  inspector,  to  the  errors  or  mistakes 
wliich  he  has  discovered.  He  should  be  required  to  note  in 
pencil,  his  corrections  and  remarks,  and  sign  his  own  name 
(also  in  pencil)  to  the  exercise  under  that  of  the  writer,  to 
Bhow  that  he  is  responsi])le  for  the  corrections.  ♦ 


*  Iiistoftd  of  n  ■written  exercise,  tlie  teacher  mav,  -with  advantage,  occa- 
lionally  present  to  the  student  a  piece  Pclccted  f'rom  some  pood  writer 
requiring  him  to  present  a  rhetorical  analysis  of  the  same.  This  analvaia 
»iiould  comprehend  the  following  operations : 

P:\r8ing. 

Panctuation. 


AIDS    TO    ENGi^ISH    Ci^POSITION.  307 

The  preceding  exercise  is  presented  merely  to  show  the  mode  ia  which, 
hi  conformity  with  the  suggestions  just  made,  the  student's  compositions 
may  be  corrected.  The  exercise  is  one  of  a  class  of  very  young  students 
By  this  example,  the  teacher  will  become  acquainted  with  a  set  of  arbi- 
trary marks  for  the  correction  of  errors,  which  may  easily  be  explained 
to  a  class,  and  when  understood  will  save  the  teacher  much  writing. 

Thus,  when  a  word  is  misspelt  or  incorrectly  written,  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  draw  a  horizontal  line  under  it,  as  in  the  following  exercise.  If 
a  capital  is  incoiTCCtly  used,  or  is  wanted  instead  of  a  small  letter,  a  short 
perpendicular  mark  is  used.  When  entire  words  or  expressions  are  to  be 
altered,  they  are  surrounded  with  black  lines,  and  the  correct  expression 
is  written  on  the  blank  page  on  the  left.  When  merely  the  order  of  the 
words  is  to  be  altered,  figures  are  wi-itten  over  the  words  designating  the 
order  in  which  they  are  to  be  read. 

Transposition. 

Synonymes,  collected,  applied,  defined,  distinguished,  and  illustratea. 

Variety  of  expression,  phrases  generalized,  particularized,  translated 
from  Latin  to  Saxon  derivatives,  and  the  reverse,  expanded,  compressed. 

Figures  of  speech  analyzed. 

Students  of  higher  g^  ,de  may  also  be  exercised  in  the  Logical  Analysis 
of  the  same  subject,  m  ticing  the  subject  with  its  scope,  topics,  method 
and  lastly  in  a  Critical  Analysis,  relating  to  the  choice  of  words. 

Structure  of  the  sentences.      ] 

Style.  1   Of  these  he  will  give  the  general  charac 

Eloquence.  j       ter,  with  a  pa»  ticular  analysis. 

Ideas.  J 

Errors. 

Beantid^. 


308 


AIDS    rO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


I 

•8 


fe 


|g 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


309 


*"  s  i  .a  "^  9 


^  q3 


.a 

1 1 

^    -^ 

TJ 

, . 

'O 

s 

<D 

fcl) 

— 

a 

c 

Q 

'd 

R 

« 

c3 

13 

.-s 

-s 

*f 

'" 

t/3      -B 

fcX)    *H 
5    .Q      >> 


9    d  -2 


5    .53 


T^       oT  "^ 


UJ<1 


§0 


OS 
O     " 

is    © 

CO   ^ 


&3   S 


I  SI'S 

"ills 
I  I'll 


03    ^ 


S    oJ 
a. 


■^ 


s 

^    oi 
5(3      ro 


it 


S   2  -« 
s  s^  2 

fco  -g  ^ 

^     ^     ^ 


^ 


bo     § 


I 


a 


3\Q  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


Lxxxn. 

MARKS  USED  BY  PRINTERS  IN  THE   CORRECTION  OB 
PROOF-SHEETS. 

Many  mistakes  in  printing  may  be  avoided,  when  the  printer  and  th* 
ivTiter  clearly  understand  one  another.  It  is  thought  it  will  be  useful  Ut 
present  in  this  volume  a  view  of  the  manner  in  which  proof-sheets  are 
corrected. 

On  the  opposite  page  is  a  specimen  of  a  proof-sheet,  with  the  correc- 
tions upon  it.  A  little  attention  will  readily  enable  the  student  to  under- 
stand the  object  of  the  various  marks  which  it  contains,  particularly  if 
taken  in  connexion  with  the  explanation  here  given. 

An  inverted  letter  is  indicated  by  the  character  and  in  the  mode  repre- 
sented in  No.  2. 

When  a  wrong  letter  is  discovered,  a  line  is  drawn  through  it  and  the 
proper  lettei^wrritten  in  the  margin,  as  in  No.  1.  The  correction  is  made 
m  the  same  manner  when  it  is  desired  to  substitute  one  word  for  another. 

If  a  letter  or  word  is  found  to  be  omitted,  a  caret  (A)  is  put  under  its 
place,  and  the  letter  or  word  to  be  supplied  is  written  in  the  margin ;  as  in 
Nos.  8  and  19. 

If  there  be  an  omission  of  several  woi-ds,  or  if  it  is  desired  to  insert  a 
new  clause  or  sentence,  which  is  too  long  to  admit  of  being  written  in  the 
side  margin,  it  is  customary  to  indicate  by  a  caret  the  place  of  the  omis 
sion,  or  for  the  insertion  of  the  new  matter,  and  to  write  on  the  bottom 
nargin  the  sentence  to  be  supplied,  connecting  it  with  the  caret  by  a  line 
irawn  from  the  one  to  the  other ;  as  in  No.  15. 

If  a  superfluous  word  or  letter  is  detected,  it  is  marked  out  by  drawing 
a  stroke  through  it,  and  a  character  which  stands  for  the  Latin  word  cfeS 
^expunge)  is  written  against  it  in  the  margin ;  as  in  No.  4. 

The  transposition  of  words  or  letters  is  indicated  as  in  the  three  exam- 
ples marked  No.  1 2. 

If  two  words  are  improperly  joined  together,  or  there  is  not  sufficient 
«pace  bctAvcen  them,  a  caret  is  to  be  interposed,  and  a  character  denoting 
separation  to  be  marked  in  the  margin  opposite ;  as  in  No.  6. 

If  the  parts  of  a  word  are  improperly  separated,  they  are  to  be  linked 
together  by  two  marks,  resembling  parentheses  placed  horizontally,  one 
above  and  the  other  beneath  the  word,  as  in  the  manner  indicated  if 
No.  20. 

Where  the  spaces  between  words  are  too  large,  this  is  to  be  indicated 
in  a  similar  manner,  excepting  that  instead  of  tivo  marks,  as  in  the  case  of 
t  wonl  impropcriy  separated,  only  one  is  employed ;  as  in  No.  9. 

Where  it  is  desired  to  make  a  new  paragraph,  the  appropriate  character 
(IT)  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  and  also  noted  in  the  mar- 
ginopposite ;  as  in  No.  10. 

Where  a  passage  has  been  improperly  broken  into  two  paragraphs,  the 
parts  are  to  be  hooked  together,  and  the  words  "  no  breaJc"  written  oppo 
•ito  in  the  margin ;  as  in  No.  18. 

K  a  word  or  clause  has  been  marked  out  or  altered,  and  it  is  afterward? 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  311 

'  a        Though  a  variety  of  opinions  exists  as  to 

the  individual  by  wqom  the  art  of  printing  was   2^ 
first  discovered;  yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting   Peter  Schoeffer   to   be  the   person  3  (^^. 
who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having  learned 
*  9     tlie  art  of  -ei-  cutting  the  letters  from  the  Gut- 
5  Q  tembergs  |,  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 
0       the  first  whoengraved  on  copper  plates.     The     /•/ 
following  testimony  is  preseved  in  the  family,     ^      . 
9        by    Jo.     Fred.     Faustus   of  Ascheffenburg :        ^ 
10 c|]-  <][«  Peter   Schoefier   of  Gernshiem,   perceiving CpCgjjUj 
11  ^     his    master    Fausts  design,  and  being  himself 
^tt.  fdesirous  [ardently')  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out    (by   the   good  providence   of    God)    the 
method  of  cutting  (incidcndi)  the  characters'^  tXet/ 
jj      in  a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be 

/singly  cast\^   instead  of  bieng  cut.     He  pri-  ^^  ci/ 
'*  j_     vately  cut  matricei  for  the   whole   alphabet  • 
16  Faust   was    so  pleased  with  the   contrivance 
/^ha*  ^^  promised  jleter  to  give  him  his  only        »4. 
/       /daug^^^r    Christina    in   marriage,   a    promise     ^^^ 
1 19       .which  he  soon  after  performed.-j  ^^  |®^^ 

'  LBut  there   were  many   difficulties   at  first 

with   these   letters,  as   there  had  been  before  3(5^^^^^^ 
with  wooden  ones,  the   metal   being  too  soft  3  'T,  p 
to  support  the  force  of  the  im  pression :   but     20  ^ 
i  this    defect   was   soon    remedied,   by   mixing 

3  2  1^  12 

a  substance  with  the  metal  which  sufficiently      tv. 
V0     hardened  it|," 


312  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

thought  best  to  retain  it,  it  is  dotted  beneath,  and  the  word  stet  (let  it 
Btand)  written  in  the  margin ;  as  in  No.  13. 

The  punctuation  marks  are  variously  indicated ;  —  the  comma  and 
semicolon  are  noted  in  the  margin  with  a  perpendicular  line  on  the 
right,  as  in  No.  21 ;  the  colon  and  period  have  a  circle  drawn  round 
them,  as  in  the  two  examples  marked  No.  5  ;  the  apostrophe  is  placed 
Iwtwecn  tAvo  convergent  marks  like  the  letter  V,  as  in  No.  1 1 ;  the  note 
(,f  admiration  and  interrogation,  as  also  the  parenthesis,  the  bracket,  and 
the  reference  marks,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  apostrophe ;  the  hyphen 
between  two  perpendicular  lines,  as  in  No.  7,  and  the  dash  the  same  as 
the  hyphen. 

Capital  letters  are  indicated  by  three  horizontal  lines  drawn  beneath 
them ;  small  capitals,  by  two  horizontal  lines ;  Italic  by  a  single  line ;  with 
the  words  Cap.,  S.  Cap.,  and  Ital.  written  in  the  margin.  When  a  word 
is  improperly  italicised,  it  should  be  underscored,  and  llom.  written  against 
it  in  the  margin.  Examples,  illustrative  of  all  these  cases,  will  be  found 
under  No.  3. 

A  broken  line  is  indicated  by  a  simple  stroke  of  the  pen  in  the  margin, 
drawn  either  horizontally,  or  as  indicated  in  No.  16. 

A  broken  letter  is  indicated  by  a  stroke  of  the  pen  drawn  under  it,  and 
a  cross  in  the  margin. 

When  a  letter  from  a  tmrong  foini,  that  is,  of  a  different  size  from  the 
rest,  appears  in  a  word,  it  is  to  be  noted  by  passing  the  pen  through  it, 
and  writing  wf.  in  the  margin,  as  in  No.  17. 

A  space  which  requires  to  be  depressed  is  to  be  marked  in  the  margin 
by  a  perpendicular  line  between  two  horizontal  lines,  as  in  No  14. 

Different  names  are  given  to  the  various  sizes  of  types,  of  which  the 
following  are  most  used  in  book  printing. 

Pica.  ^  Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Small  Pica.  Abcdefghijldmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Long  Primer.  Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Bourgeois.  Abcdefglujklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

lireyier.  Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Minion.  Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Nonpareil.  Abcd^fehijklmnopqrsluvwxyz. 

Agato.  AbcdefcrhiiiilmnopqrstuvwTyz. 

PearL  Abrxl«»fchijklmnopqr8tuvwxyz. 
Abodt^hljUmiMpiirMurirzji. 


As  it  may  be  interesting  to  know  the  frequency  with  which  8<Mne  of  the 
vettcrs  occur,  it  may  hero  bo  stated  that,  in  the  printer's  cases,  for  every 
hundred  of  tlio  letter  q  there  are  two  hundred  of  the  letter  ar,  four  hundred 
t»f  k,  eight  hundred  of  b,  fifteen  hundred  of  r.  four  thousand  each  of  t,  w,  o, 
and  jr,  four  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  or  a,  four  thousand  five  hundred 
of  t,  and  six  thousand  of  the  letter  e. 


»  The  next  two  sizes  of  type  larger  than  the  above  are  called  English  and 
— . «_.  .    ,.  .  ..       ..         ^     ,.    ^.  ..      Pica,  Three 

Pica  in  size. 


Great  Primer,  and  all  lar^f  than  these.  Double  Pica,  two  Line  Pica,  Three 
Line  Pica,  Fifteen  Line  Pica,  &c.,  according  as  they  exceed  the  Pi 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION  318 


LXXXIII. 


TECHNICAL  TEEMS  RELATING  TO  BOOKS. 

A  book  is  said  to  be  in  Folio  when  one  sheet  of  paper  makes 
Dut  two  leaves,  or  four  pages.  When  the  sheet  makes  four 
leaves  or  eight  pages,  it  is  said  to  be  in  Quarto  form ;  eight 
leaves  or  sixteen  pages,  in  Octavo ;  twelve  leaves  or  twenty- 
four  pages,  Duodecimo ;  eighteen  leaves.  Octodecimo.  These 
terms  are  thus  abbreviated :  fol.  for  folio ;  4to  for  quarto ;  8vo 
for  octavo;  12mo  for  duodecimo  ;  18mo,  24s,  32s,  64s,  signify 
respectively  that  the  sheet  is  divided  into  eighteen,  twenty- 
four,  &c.,  leaves. 

The  Title-page  is  the  first  page,  containing  the  title ;  and 
a  picture  facing  it  is  called  the  Frontispiece. 

Vignette  is  a  French  term,  used  to  designate  the  descriptive 
or  ornamental  picture,  sometimes  placed  on  the  title-page  of  a 
book,  sometimes  at  the  head  of  a  chapter,  &c. 

The  Running-title  is  the  word  or  sentence  at  the  top  of 
every  page,  generally  printed  in  capitals  or  Italic  letters. 

When  the  page  is  divided  into  several  parts  by  a  blank 
space,  or  a  line  running  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  each 
division  is  called  a  column ;  as  in  bibles,  dictionaries,  spelling- 
books,  newspapers,  &c. 

The  letters  A,  B,  C,  &c.,  and  A2,  A3,  &c.,  at  the  bottom 
of  the  page,  are  marks  for  directing  the  book-binder  in  cdi- 
lecting  and  folding  the  sheets. 

The  catch-word  is  the  word  at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  on 
the  right  hand,  which  is  repeated  at  the  beginning  of  the  next, 
in  order  to  show  that  the  pages  succeed  one  another  in  proper 
order.     It  is  seldom  inserted  in  books  recently  printed. 

The  Italic  words  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  are 
those  which  have  no  corresponding  words  in  the  original  He- 
brew 01  Greek,  but  they  were  added  by  the  translators  to 
complete  or  explain  the  sense. 

27 


314  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

LXXXIV. 

OBITUARY  NOTICE. 

An  Obituary  Notice  is  designed  to  commemorate  the  vir- 
tees  which  distinguished  an  individual  recently  deceased. 
Writings  of  this  kind  are  generally  fugitive  in  their  charac- 
ter, and  seldom  survive  the  occasion  which  called  them  forth. 
They  are  not  designed  to  present  many  of  the  events  of  the 
life  of  the  individual,  but  rather  a  general  summary  of  his 
character.  An  obituary  notice  is  a  kind  of  writing  generally 
confined  to  periodical  publications,  and  destitute  of  the  dig- 
nity of  biography,  and  the  minute  detail  of  memoirs. 

Model, 

OBITUARY   NOTICE    OF   DR.    MATIGNON. 

The  Rev.  Francis  A.  Matignon,  D.  D.,  who  died  on  the  19th  of  Septcm 
ber,  1818,  was  born  in  Paris,  November  10th,  1753.  Devoted  to  letters 
ancl  religion  from  his  earliest  youth,  his  progress  was  rapid  and  his 
piety  conspicuous.  He  attracted  the  notice  of  the  learned  faculty,  as 
ne  passed  through  the  several  grades  of  chissical  and  theological  studies  j 
ana,  having  taken  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Divinity,  he  was  ordained  a 
Priest,  on  Saturday,  the  19th  of  September,  1778,  the  very  day  of  the  month 
and  week,  which,  forty  years  after,  was  to  be  his  last.  In  the  year  1782. 
he  was  admitted  a  licentiate,  and  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity 
from  the  college  of  the  Sorbonne  in  1785.  At  this  time  he  was  appointed  Regiup 
Professor  of  Divinity  in  the  college  of  Navarre,  in  which  seminary  he 
performed  his  duties  lor  several  years,  although  his  state  of  health  was  nol 
good. 

His  talents  and  piety  had  recommended  him  to  the  notice  of  ft  Prelate  in 
great  credit,  (the  Cardinal  Do  Bricnne,)  who  obtained  for  him  the  grant  of 
an  annuity  from  the  king,  Louis  the  Sixteenth,  which  was  sufficient  for  all 
his  wants,  established  him  in  independence,  and  took  away  all  anxiety  for 
the  future.  But  the  wavs  of  Providence  are  inscrutable  to  the  wisest  and  best 
of  the  children  of  men.  The  revolution,  which  dethroned  his  beloved  monarch, 
and  stained  the  altar  of  his  God  with  tlie  blood  of  holv  men,  drove  Dr.  Mat- 
ignon an  exile  from  his  native  shores.  He  fled  to  Kngland,  where  he  re- 
mained several  months,  and  then  returned  to  France,  to  prepare  for  a 
voyage  to  the  United  States.  Ho  landed  in  Baltimore,  and  was  appointed 
by  Bishop  Carroll  Pastor  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Boston,  at  which  place 
he  arrived  August  20tli.  1792. 

The  talents  of  Dr.  Rlatignon  were  of  the  highest  order.  In  him  were 
united  a  Bouv.d  understanding,  a  rich  and  vigorous  imagination,  and  a  logical 
preoiBion  of  thought.  His  learning  was  extensive,  critical,  and  profound, 
juid  all  his  productions  were  deeply  cast,  symmetrically  formed,  and  bcauti 
fully  colored.  The  fathers  of  the  church,  and  the  great  divines  of  every 
age  were  his  familiai"  friends.     His  divinity  was  not  merely  epeculative,  nor 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  31o 

me-.eiy  practical;  it  was  the  blended  influence  of  thought,  feeling,  and  ac- 
tion. '  He  had  learned  divinity  as  a  scholar,  taught  it  as  a  professor,  felt  it  as 
a  worshipper,  and  diffused  it  as  a  faithful  pastor.  His  genius  and  his  virtues 
were  understood ;  for  the  wise  bowed  to  his  superior  knowledge,  and  the 
humble  caught  the  spirit  of  his  devotions.  With  the  unbelieving  and 
doubtful,  he  reasoned  with  the  mental  strength  of  the  apostle  Paul ;  and  he 
channed  back  the  penitential  wanderer  with  the  kindness  and  aftection  of 
John  the  Evangelist.  His  love  for  mankind  flowed  in  the  purest  current, 
and  his  piety  caught  a  glow  from  the  intensity  of  his  feelings.  Rigid  and 
scrupulous  to  hirhself,  he  was  charitable  and  indulgent  to  others.  To  youth, 
in  a  particular  manner,  he  was  forgiving  and  fatherly.  With  him  the  tear 
of  penitence  washed  away  the  stains  of  error ;  for  he  had  gone  up  to  the 
fountains  of  human  nature,  and  knew  all  its  weaknesses.  Many,  retrieved 
from  folly  and  vice,  can  bear  witness  how  deeply  he  Avas  skilled  in  the 
science  of  parental  government ;  that  science  so  little  understood,  and,  foi 
want  of  which,  so  many  evils  arise.  It  is  a  proof  of  a  great  mind,  not  to  be 
soured  byonisfortunes  nor  narrowed  by  any  particular  pursxxit.  Dr.  Mat 
ignon,  if  possible,  grew  milder  and  more  indulgent,  as  he  advanced  in  years. 
The  storms  of  life  had  broken  the  heart  of  the  man,  but  out  of  its  wounds 
gushed  the  tide  of  sympathy  and  universal  Christian  charity.  The  woes  of 
life  crush  the  feeble,  make  more  stupid  the  dull,  and  more  vindictive  the 
proud ;  but  the  great  mind  and  contrite  soul  are  expanded  with  purer  be 
nevolence,  and  warmed  with  brighter  hopes,  by  suflTering,  —  knowing,  that 
through  tribulation  and  anguish  the  diadem  of  the  saint  is  won. 

To  him  whose  heart  has  sickened  at  the  selfishness  of  mankind,  and  who 
has  seen  the  low  and  trifling  pursuits  of  the  greater  proportion  of  human 
beings,  it  is  sweet  and  refreshing  to  contemplate  the  philosopher,  delighted 
with  the  visions  of  other  worlds,  and  ravished  with  the  harmonies  of  nature, 
pursuing  his  course  abstracted  from  the  bustle  around  him ;  but  how  much 
nobler  is  the  course  of  the  moral  and  Christian  philosopher,  who  teaches  the 
ways  of  God  to  man.  He  holds  a  holy  communion  with  Heaven,  walks  with 
the  Creator  in  the  garden  at  eveiy  hour  in  the  day,  without  wishing  to  hide 
himself.  While  he  muses,  the  spirit  burns  within  him,  and  the  high  influ 
ences  of  the  inspiration  force  him  to  proclaim  to  the  children  of  men  the 
deep  wonders  of  divine  love. 

But  this  contemplation  must  give  angels  pleasure,  when  they  behold  this 
purified  and  elevated  being  dedicating  his  services,  not  to  the  mighty,  not  to 
the  wise,  but  to  the  humblest  creatures  of  sorrow  and  suflering.  iSave  we 
not  seen  our  friend  leaving  these  sublime  contemplations,  and  entering  the 
habitations  of  want  and  woe  ?  relieving  their  temporal  necessities,  adminis- 
tering the  consolations  of  religion  to  the  despairing  soul  in  the  agonies  of 
dissolution  ?  Yes,  the  sons  of  the  forest  in  the  most  chilling  climates,  the 
tenants  of  the  hovel,  the  erring  and  the  profligate,  can  bear  witness  with 
what  patience,  earnestness,  constancy,  and  mildness,  he  labored  to  make 
them  better. 

In  manners.  Dr.  Matignon  was  an  accomplished  gentleman,  possessing 
that  liindness  of  heart  and  delicacy  of  feeling,  which  made  him  study  the 
wants  and  anticipate  the  wishes  of  all  he  knew.  He  was  well  acquainted 
with  the  politest  courtesies  of  society,  for  it  must  not,  in  accounting  for  his 
accomplishments,  be  forgotten,  that  he  was  born  and  educated  in  the  bosom 
of  refinement ;  that  he  was  associated  with  chevaliers  and  nobles,  and  was 
patronized  by  cardinals  and  premiers.  In  his  earlier  life,  it  was  not  un- 
common to  see  ecclesiastics  minghng  in  society  with  philosophers  and 
courtiers,  and  still  preserving  the  most  perfect  apostolic  purity  in  their 
lives  and  conversation.  The  scrutinizing  eye  of  infidel  philosophy  was  upon 
them,  and  these  unbelievers  would  have  hailed  it  as  a  triumph,  to  have 
caught  them  in  the  slightest  deviation  from  their  professions.  But  no  greater 
proof  of  the  soundness  of  their  faith,  or  the  ardor  of  their  piety,  could  be 
askfcd.  tiian  the  fact,  that,  from  all  the  bishops  in  Frfin';e  at  the  commence- 


sin  Airs    TO    HNGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

rnont  of  the  revolnticn,  amounting  to  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight,  bui 
three  only  were  found  wanting  in  integrity  and  good  faith,  when  they  were 
put  to  the  test ;  and  it  was  such  a  test,  too,  that  it  could  have  been  sup 
ported  by  religion  only.  In  passing  such  an  ordeal,  pride,  fortitude,  phi 
fosophy.'and  even  inseasibility  would  have  failed.  The  whole  strength  of 
human  nature  was  shrunken  and  blasted,  when  opposed  to  the  besom  of 
the  revolution.  Then  the  bravest  bowed  in  terror,  or  fled  in  aflfright ;  but 
then  these  disciples  of  the  lowly  Jesus  taught  mankind  how  they  could  suffer 
for  his  sake. 

Dr.  Matignon  loved  his  native  country,  and  always  expressed  the  deepest 
Interests  in  her  fortunes  and  fate  ;  yet  his  patriotism  never  infringed  on  his 
philanthropy.  He  spoke  of  England,  as  a  great  nation  which  contained 
much  to  admire  and  imitate;  and  his  gratitude  kindled  at  the  remembrance 
of  British  munificence  and  generosity  to  the  exiled  priests  of  a  hostile  nation 
if  different  religious  creeds. 

When  Dr.  Matignon  came  to  Boston,  new  trials  awaited  him.  His  prede- 
jessors  in  this  place  wanted  either  talents,  character,  or  perseverance  ;  and 
nothing  of  consequence  had  been  done  towards  gathering  and  directing  a 
flock.  The  good  people  of  New  England  were  something  moi-e  than  sus- 
picious on  the  subject  of  his  success ;  they  were  suspicious  of  the  Catholic 
doctrines.  Their  ancestors,  from  the  settlement  of  the  country,  had  been 
oreaching  against  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  their  descendants,  even  the 
most  enlightened,  felt  a  strong  impression  of  undefined  and  undefinable  dis- 
like, if  not  hatred,  towards  every  papal  relation.  Absurd  and  foolish  legends 
)f  the  Pope  and  his  religion  werem  common  circulation,  and  the  prejudice 
was  too  (keply  rooted  to  be  suddenly  eradicated,  or  even  opposed.  It  re 
quired  a  thoronsh  acquaintance  with  the  world,  to  know  precisely  how  to 
meet  those  sentiments  of  a  whole  people.  Violence  and  indiscretion  would 
have  destroyed  all  hopes  of  success.  Ignorance  would  have  exposed  the 
cause  to  sarcasm  and  contempt,  and  enthusiasm,  too  manifest,  would  have 
produced  a  reiiction,  that  would  have  plunged  the  infant  establishment  in 
absolute  ruin.  Dr.  Matignon  was  exactly  fitted  to  encounter  all  these  diffi 
culties.  And  he  saw  them,  and  knew  his  task,  with  the  discernment  of  a 
shrewd  politician.  With  meekness  and  humility  he  disarmed  the  proud ; 
with  prudence,  learning,  and  wisdom,  he  met  the  captious  and  slanderous, 
and  so  gentle  and  so  just  was  his  course,  that  even  the  censorious  forgot  to 
watch  him,  and  the  malicious  were  too  cunning  to  attack  one  armed  m> 
strongly  in  honesty.  For  four  years  he  sustained  the  weight  of  tins  cnarge 
alone,  until  Providence  sent  him  a  coadjutor  in  the  person  of  the  present 
excellent  Bishop  Chevcrus,  who  seemed  made  by  nature,  and  fitted  by  edu 
cation  and  grace,  to  soothe  his  griefs  by  sympathy,  (for  he  too  hadsufiered,, 
to  cheer  him  by  tlio  blandishments  of  taste  and  letters,  and  all  congenial 
pursuits  and  habits  ;  and,  in  fact,  they  were  as  far  identified  as  two  em 
nodied  minds  coul<l  bo.  These  holy  seers  pursued  their  religious  pilgrim- 
age together,  blessing  and  being  blessed,  for  more  than  twenty  veai-s;  and 
the  young  Elisha  had  received  a  double  portion  of  the  spirit,  amh  worn  the 
mantle  of  his  friend  and  gtiide,  long  before  the  sons  of  the  prophets  heard 
the  cry  of,  Myfatkrr^  my  father^  the  c/iariot  o/Imiic/  and  the  horsemen  thereof. 
May  t)ie  survivor  find  consolation  in  the  religion  he  teaches,  and  long  be 
kept  on  his  jounicy,  to  bless  the  cruise  of  oil  in  the  dwellings  of  poverty  and 
widowliood,  and  to"  cloanso  by  the  power  of  tJoil  tlio  leprosy  "of  the  sinful  soul. 

Far  from  the  sepulchre  of  his  fathers  repose  the  ashes  of  the  good  and 
great  Dr.  Matignon  ;  but  his  grave  is  not  as  among  strangers,  for  it  was  w.a 
tered  by  the  tearaof  an  affectionate  flock,  and  his  memory  is  cherished  by 
all  who  value  learning,  honor  genius,  or  love  devotion. 

The  writer  of  this  brief  notice  offers  it,  aa  a  faint  and  rude  memorial  only 
of  the  ^^rlucs  of  the  man  whoso  character  ho  venerated.  Time  must  as 
Buago  the  wounds  of  grief  before  he,  who  bv*,d  him  most,  and  knew  hioo 
V>ost,  can  attempt  liis  enlt^i'oh 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION  317 

LXXXV. 

CRITICAL  NOTICE. 

Select  some  biographical  work ;  state  any  impression  you 
may  have  received  of  it  as  to  the  age,  —  the  contemporaries, 
' — the  influence,  —  the  difficulties  and  advantages  of  the  au 
*hor,  —  the  style  of  his  narrative,  &c 

ExampleJ^ 

I  have  selected  the  life  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin,  written  by  himself, 
to  a  late  period.  The  style  of  the  work  is  simple  and  concise,  which  is 
the  peculiar  characteristic  of  all  ms  writings ;  indeed,  his  writing  princi- 
pally for  the  advantage  of  the  people,  (though  the  most  elevated  ranks 
may  be  benefited  by  liis  instructions,)  accounts  for  his  desire  of  express 
ing  himself  in  plain  and  simple  language.  The  first  part  of  the  book, 
not  being  intended  for  public  perusal,  is  written  with  more  minuteness  of 
particulars,  than  it  otherwise  would  have  been ;  he  even  apologizes  to  his 
son  for  the  familiarity  of  the  style ;  observing,  that  "■  we  do  not  dress  for 
a  private  company  as  for  a  formal  ball." 

Dr.  Franklin  was  remarkable  from  his  youth  for  persevering  and  inde- 
fatigable industry.  This,  with  his  prudent  and  reflecting  mind,  secured 
him  his  fame  and  importance  in  the  world.  He  early  manifested  .^  love 
of  learning,  which  his  humble  birth  and  narrow  circumstances  allowed 
him  few  opportunities  of  indulging ;  but  when  they  did  oifer,  he  nevei 
suff'cred  them  to  escape  unimproved.  He  was  frugal  in  his  mode  of  life 
that  he  might  employ  his  savings  in  the  purchase  of  books  ;  and  diligent 
at  })is  work,  that  he  might  gain  time  for  his  studies.  Thus,  all  obstacles 
were  removed  in  his  pursuit  of  knowledge.  We  behold  him  emerging 
by  degrees  from  obscurity ;  then  advancing  more  and  more  into  notice 
and  soon  taking  a  high  stand  in  the  estimation  of  his  felloAV- citizens. 

He  was  continually  before  the  world  in  various  characters.  As  a  natu 
ral  philosopher,  he  surpassed  all  his  contemporaries ;  as  a  politician,  he 
adhered  to  his  country  during  her  long  struggle  for  independence,  and, 
throughout  his  political  career,  was  distinguished  for  his  firm  integrity 
and  skilful  negotiations ;  as  a  citizen,  his  character  shines  with  peculiar 
lustre  5  he  seems  to  have  examined  every  thing,  to  discover  how  he  might 
add  to  the  happiness  of  his  friends.  Piiiladelphia  shows  with -delight  the 
many  institutions  he  has  founded  for  her  advantage,  and  boasts  of  the 
benefits  conferred  on  her  sons  by  his  philanthropic  ztal.  Indeed,  to  do 
go^d  was  the  grand  aim  of  his  life.  Fi-om  the  midat  of  hb  philosophi- 
cal researches,  he  descends  to  attend  to  the  daily  int-^rp^te  e'  hir  ftliaw 
creatures ;  after  bringing  down  lightning  f^om  the  clouds,  be  invcj»*r  g 
stove  for  the  comfort  of  men.    In  the  midst  of  the  honors  paid  him  f^x 

*  This  is  a  genuine  college  exercise,  presented  at  ou«  of  cnr  Tk.-ii-'t^*'-'"  • 
a  few  years  ago. 

27* 


3 lb  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

his  discovery  <>{  the  sameness  of  lightning  with  electricity,  he  rejoices  in 
the  thought,  that  the  knowledge  of  this  important  fact  might  contribute 
to  the  safety  of  mankind. 

After  his  death,  even,  his  example  is  of  great  use ;  to  the  young,  his 
self-acquired  learning,  which  procured  for  him  the  honorary  distinctions 
of  the  f^uropean  universities  and  philosophical  societies,  affords  a  practi- 
cal illustration  of  tlie  value  of  perseverance  and  industiy ;  his  advanced 
years  offer  to  the  aged  an  excellent  model  for  the  occupation  of  their 
time.  His  private  life  exhibits  a  splendid  catalogue  of  virtues;  to  hio 
temperance  he  owed  his  long  sojourn  upon  earth ;  to  his  resolution  and 
industry,  Iiis  wide-spread  fame ;  to  his  sincerity  and  moderation,  the 
affection  of  his  friends ;  to  his  frugality,  the  means  of  benevolence ;  and 
to  his  pi-udence  and  integrity,  the  esteem  and  approbation  of  his  country- 
men. The  temptation  of  courts,  and  the  favors  heaped  upon  him  by 
princes  and  nobles,  robbed  him  of  none  of  these  virtues.  These  he  re- 
tained, with  a  contented  mind  and  a  clear  conscience,  till  he  was  sum 
moned  to  receive  his  fmal  reward. 


LXXXVI. 

CRITICISM. 

The  following  criticism  by  Dr.  Blair  is  here  presented  thai 
the  student  may  understand  the  principles  by  which  literary 
merit  is  to  be  estimated.  The  subject  criticised  is  No.  411 
of  the  Spectator,  written  by  Mr.  Addison ;  of  whom  Dr. 
Johnson  has  said  that  all  who  wish  to  write  the  English  lan- 
guage with  elegance  should  study  the  pages  of  Addison. 

"  Our  sight  is  the  most  perfect,  and  most  delightful  of  all  our  senses." 

This  scnieiice  is  clear,  precise,  and  simple.  The  author  in  a  few  plain 
words  lays  down  the  proposition,  which  lie  is  going  to  illustrate.  A  first 
•entence  should  seldom  be  long,  and  never  intricate.' 

Ho  might  have  said,  otir  sight  is  the  most  perfect  and  the  most  dtligJitful. 
But  in  omitting  to  repeat  the  particle  the,  ho  has  been  more  judicious  ;  for 
as  between  perftct  and  delightful  thci-o  is  no  contrast,  such  a  repetition  is 
nnnccossarv.     IIo  proceeds  : 

"  It  fills  t'lie  mind  witii  the  largest  variety  of  ideas,  converses  witk  its  ob 
iects  at  the  greatest  distance,  and  continues  the  longest  in  action,  without 
being  tired  or  satiated  with  its  proper  enjoyments."   . 

This  sentence  is  remarkably  narmonious',  and  well  constructed.  It  is  en 
lireiy  perspicuous.  It  is  loaded  with  no  unnecessary  words.  That  quality 
of  a  good  .•sentence,  whicli  we  termed  its  unity,  is  here  perfectlv  preserved. 
The  members  of  it  also  grow,  anil  rise  above  each  other  in  sound,  till  it  is 
conducted  to  one  of  the  most  harmonious  closes  which  our  language  ad 
aiits.  It  is  moreover  figurative  without  being  too  much  so  for  tlie  subject. 
There  is  no  fault  in  it  whatever,  except  tliis,  the  epithet  Uirgw,  which  hs 


AIDS    TC    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  819 

applies  to  variety^  is  more  commonly  applied  to  extent  than  to  number.  It 
18  plain,  however,  that  he  employed  it  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  the  word 
{[reat,  which  occui'S  immediately  afterward. 

"  The  sense  of  feeling  can,  indeed,  give  us  a  notion  of  extension,  shape, 
and  all  othar  ideas  that  enter  at  the  eye,  except  colors ;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  it  is  very  much  straitened  and  confined  in  its  operations,  to  the  num- 
ber, bulk,  and  distance  of  its  particular  objects." 

But  is  not  every  sense  confined  as  much  as  the  sense  of  feeling,  to  the 
lumber,  bulk,  and  distance  of  its  own  objects  ?  The  turn  of  expression  is 
also  very  inaccurate,  requiring  the  two  words,  with  regard,  to  be  inserted 
after  the  word  operations,  in  order  to  make  the  sense  clear  and  intelligible. 
The  epithet  particidar  seems  to  be  used  instead  of  -peculiar;  but  these 
words,  though  often  confounded,  are  of  very  different  import.  Farticular 
is  opposed  to  general;  pecxdlar  stands  opposed  to  what  is  possessed  in  com 
moil  loitk  others. 

"  Our  sight  seems  designed  to  supply  all  these  defects,  and  may  be  con 
Bidered  as  a  more  delicate  and  diffusive  kind  of  touch,  that  spreads  itself 
over  an  infinite  multitude  of  bodies,  compreliends  the  largest  figures,  ano 
brinp  into  our  reach  some  of  the  most  remote  parts  of  the  universe." 

Tnis  sentence  is  perspicuous,  graceful,  well  arranged,  and  highly  musical 
Its  construction  is  so  similar  to  that  of  the  second  sentence,  that,  had  it  im 
mediately  succeeded  it,  the  ear  would  have  been  sensible  of  a  faulty  monot 
ony.     But  the  interposition  of  a  period  prevents  this  effect. 

"  It  is  this  sense  which  furnishes  the  imagination  with  its  ideas  ;  so  that, 
by  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination  or  fancy  (which  I  shall  use  promiscu 
ously)  I  here  mean  such  as  arise  from  visible  objects,  either  when  we  have 
them  actually  in  our  view,  or  when  we  call  up  their  ideas  into  our  minds 
by  paintings,  statues,  descriptions,  or  any  the  like  occasion." 

The  parenthesis  in  the  middle  of  this  sentence  is  not  clear.  It  should 
have  been,  terms  which  I  shall  use  promisciiously ;  since  the  verb  use  does 
not  relate  to  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  but  to  the  terms,  fancy  and 
imagination,  which  were  meant  to  be  synonymous.  To  call  a  painting  or 
a  statue  an  occasion,  is  not  accurate ;  nor  is  it  very  proper  to  speak  of 
tailing  up  ideas  by  occasions.  The  common  phrase,  any  such  means,  would 
have  been  more  natural. 

"  We  cannot  indeed  have  a  single  image  in  the  fancy,  that  did  not  make 
its  first  entrance  through  the  sight ;  but  we  have  the  power  of  retaining, 
altering,  and  compounding  those  images  which  we  have  once  received,  into 
all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision,  that  are  most  agreeable  to  the  ima^n- 
ation ;  for,  by  this  faculty,  a  man  in  a  dungeon  is  capable  of  entertaining 
nimself  with  scenes  and  landscapes  more  beautiful  than  any  that  can  be 
found  in  the  whole  compass  of  nature." 

In  one  member  of  this  sentence  there  is  an  inaccuracy  in  syntax.  It  is 
proper  to  say,  altering  and  compounding  tliose  images  lohich  we  have  once 
received,  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision.  But  we  cannot  with 
propriety  say,  retaining  them  into  all  the  varieties ;  yet  the  arrangement 
requires  this  construction.  This  error  might  have  been  avoided  by  arrang- 
ing the  passage  in  the  following  manner :  "  We  have  the  power  of  retaining 
those  images  which  we  have  once  received ;  and  of  altering  and  com- 
pounding them  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision."  The  latter 
part  of  the  sentence  is  clear  and  elegant. 

"  There  are  few  words  in  the  English  language,  which  are  employed  in 
«,  more  loose  and  uncircumscribed  sense  than  those  of  the  fancy  and  the 
imagination." 

Except  when  some  assertion  of  consequence  is  advanced,  these  little 
words,  It  is  and  there  are,  ought  to  be  avoided,  as  redundant  and  enfeebling. 
The  two  fii-st  words  of  this  sentence,  therefore,  should  have  been  omitted. 
rUe  art'cle  prefixed  to  fancy  and  imagination  ought  also  to  have  been 


320  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

omitted,  since  he  does  not  mean  the  powers  of  the  fancy  and  the  imagi-h^ 
tion,  but  the  words  only.  The  sentence  should  have  run  thus :  "  Few 
words  in  the  English  language  are  employed  in  a  more  loose  and  uncir, 
cumscribed  sense  than  fancy  and  imagination." 

"  I  therefore  thought  it  necessary  to  fix  and  determine  the  notion  of  these 
two  words,  as  I  intend  to  make  use  of  them  in  the  thread  of  my  following 
speculations,  that  the  reader  may  conceive  rightly  what  is  the  subject 
which  I  proceed  upon. 

The  words  ^:c  and  determine,  though  they  may  appear  so,  are  not  synony 
rnuus.  We  fix,  what  is  loose ;  we  determine,  what  is  uncirciunscribed 
They  may  be  viewed,  therefore,  as  applied  here  with  peculiar  delicacy. 

The  notion  of  these  words,  is  rather  harsh,  and  is  not  so  commonly  used 
as  the  meaning  of  these  words.  As  I  iyitend  to  make  use  of  them  in  thA 
thread  of  my  speculations,  is  evidently  faulty.  A  sort  of  metaphor  is  im 
properly  mixed  with  words  in  their  literal  sense.  The  subject  which  I  pro- 
ceed upon  is  an  ungraceful  close  of  a  sentence ;  it  should  have  been,  the 
suiijecl  upon  which  J  proceed. 

"  I  must  therefore  desire  him  to  remember,  that,  by  the  pleasures  of  im 
agination,  1  mean  only  such  pleasures  as  arise  originally  from  sight,  and 
that  I  divide  these  pleasures  into  two  kinds." 

This  sentence  begins  in  a  manner  too  similar  to  the  precedinoj.  I  mean 
only  such  pleasures,  the  adverb  only  is  not  in  its  proper  place.  It  is  not  in 
tended  here  to  qualify  the  verb  mean,  but  snch  pleasures  ;  and  ought  there 
fore  to  be  placed  immediately  after  the  latter. 

"  My  design  being,  first  of  all,  to  discourse  of  those  primary  pleasures  of 
the  imagination,  which  entirely  proceed  from  such  objects  as  are  before 
our  eyes ;  and,  in  the  next  place,  to  speak  of  those  secondary  plejisures  of 
tlie  imagination,  which  flow  from  the  ideas  of  visible  objects,  when  tlio  ob 
jects  are  not  actually  before  the  eye,  but  are  called  up  into  our  memories, 
or  formed  into  agreeable  visions* of  things,  that  are  either  absent  or  fio 
titious." 

Neatness  and  brevity  are  peculiarly  requisite  in  the  division  of  a  subject. 
This  sentence  is  somewhat  cli)j;^ed  by  a  tedious  phraseology.  My  design 
being,  first  of  all,  to  discourse — in  the  next  place  to  speak  of- — such  objrcts  ax 
arc  before  oitreyes — things  tluit  are  either  absent  or  fictitious.  Several  worua 
might  have  been  omitted,  and  the  style  made  more  neat  and  compact. 

"  The  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  taken  in  their  full  extentj  are  not  so 
gross  as  those  of  sense,  nor  so  refined  as  those  of  the  understanding." 

This  sentence  is  clear  and  elegant. 

'*  The  last  are  indeed  more  preferable,  because  they  are  founded  on  some 
new  knowledge  or  improvement  in  the  mind  of  man ;  yet  it  must  be  cou 
fcssed,  that  those  of  the  imagination  are  as  great  and  as  transporting  aa  tk  '^ 
other." 

The  phrase,  more  preff r aide,  is  so  palpable  an  inaccuracy,  that  we  wonde. 
how  it  could  escape  the  observation  of  Mr.  Addison.  The  proposition,  con 
tained  in  the  last  member  of  this  sentence,  is  neither  clearlv  nor  eleganth 
expressed.  H  must  be  confessed,  thai  those  of  tlie  imagination  are  as  grea. 
and  as  transporting  cts  the  other.  In  the  begmning  of  tliis  sentence  he  ha» 
called  the  pleasures  of  the  understanding  the  last ;  and  he  concludes  will 
observing,  that  those  of  the  imagination  are  as  great  and  transporting  a* 
the  other.  IJesido  that  the  other  makes  not  a  proper  contrast  with  the  last 
it  is  left  doubtful  whether  by  the  other  are  meant  the  pleasures  of  the  un 
dorstanding,  or  the  pleasures  of  sense ;  though  without  aoubt  it  was  intend 
ed  to  refer  to  the  pleasures  of  the  understixnding  only. 

•'  A  beautiful  prospect  delights  the  soul  as  much  as  a  demonstration , 
and  a  description  in  Homer  has  charmed  more  readers  than  a  chapter  in 
Aristotle." 

This  is  a  good  illustration  of  what  he  had  been  asserting,  and  is  expressed 
with  that  e'cgance,  by  which  Mr.  Addi3')n  is  distinguished. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  321 

"  Besides,  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination  have  this  advautngc  abovo 
those  of  the  understanding,  that  they  are  more  obvious  and  more  easv  to  bt 
acquired." 

This  sentence  is  unexceptionable. 

"  It  is  but  opening  the  eye,  and  the  scene  enters." 

Though  this  is  lively  and  picturesque,  yet  we  must  remark  a  small  inac 
curacy.  K  scene  cannot  be  said  to  enter;  an  actor  enters;  but  a  scene 
appears  or  presents  itself. 

"  The  colors  paint  themselves  on  the  fancy,  with  very  little  attention  of 
thought  or  application  of  mind  in  the  beholder." 

This  is  beautiful  and  elegant,  and  well  suited  to  those  pleasures  of  th* 
imagination  of  which  the  author  is  treating. 

"  We  are  struck,  we  know  not  how,  with  the  symmetry  of  any  thing  w« 
see  ;  and  immediately  assent  to  the  beauty  of  au  object,  without  inquiring 
into  the  particular  causes  and  occasions  of  it." 

We  assent  to  the  truth  of  a  proposition ;  but  cannot  with  propriety  be 
said  to  assent  to  the  beauty  of  an  object.  In  the  conclusion,  partic^dar  and 
occasions  are  superfluous  words ;  and  the  pronoun  it  is  in  some  measure 
ambiguous. 

"  A  man  of  a  polite  imagination  is  let  into  a  great  many  pleasures  that 
the  vulgar  are  not  capable  of  receiving." 

The  terra  polite  is  oftener  applied  to  manners,  than  to  the  imagination. 
The  use  of  uiM  instead  of  which,  is  too  common  with  Mr.  Addison.  Ex- 
cept in  cases  where  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  repetition,  whieh  is  preferable 
to  tJiat,  and  is  undoubtedly  so  in  the  present  instance. 

"  He  can  converse  with  a  picture,  and  find  an  agreeable  companion  in  a 
statue.  He  meets  with  a  secret  refreshment  in  a  description ;  and  often 
feels  a  greater  satisfaction  in  the  prospect  of  fields  and  meadows,  than 
another  does  in  the  possession.  It  gives  him  indeed  a  kind  of  property  in 
every  thing  he  sees ;  and  makes  the  most  rude  uncultivated  parts  of  nature 
administer  to  his  pleasures :  so  that  he  looks  upon  the  world,  as  it  were,  in 
another  light,  and  discovers  in  it  a  multitude  of  charms  that  conceal  them 
selves  from  the  generality  of  mankind." 

This  sentence  is  easy,  flowing,  and  harmonious.  We  must,  however,  ob 
serve  a  slight  inaccuracy.  It  gives  him  a  kind  of  property — to  this  it  there 
is  no  antecedent  in  the  whole  paragraph.  To  discover  its  comiexion,  we 
must  look  back  to  the  third  sentence  preceding,  which  begins  with  a  man 
of  a  polite  imagination.  This  phrase,  polite  imagination,  is  the  only  an- 
tecedent to  which  it  can  refer ;  and  even  this  is  not  a  proper  antecedent, 
since  it  stands  in  the  genitive  case  as  the  qualification  only  of  a  man. 

"  There  are,  indeed,  but  very  few  who  know  how  to  be  idle  and  innocent, 
or  have  a  reUsh  of  any  pleasures  that  are  not  criminal :  every  diversion 
they  take  is  at  the  expense  of  some  one  virtue  or  another,  and  their  very 
first  step  out  of  business  is  into  vice  or  folly." 

This  sentence  is  truly  elegant,  musical,  and  correct. 

"  A  man  should  endeavor,  therefore,  to  make  the  sphere  of  his  innocent 
pleasures  as  wide  as  possible,  that  he  may  retire  into  them  with  safety,  and 
find  in  them  such  a  satisfaction  as  a  wise  man  would  not  blush  to  take." 

This  also  is  a  good  sentence  and  exposed  to  no  objection. 

"  Of  this  nature  are  those  of  the  imagination,  which  do  not  require  such 
a  bent  of  thought  as  is  necessary  to  our  more  serious  employments ;  nor,  at 
the  same  time,  suffer  the  mind  to  sink  into  that  indolence  and  remissness, 
which  are  apt  to  accompany  our  more  sensual  delights  ;  but  like  a  gentle 
exercise  to  the  faculties,  awaken  from  sloth  and  idleness,  without  putting 
them  upon  any  labor  or  difficulty." 

The  beginning  of  this  sentence  is  incorrect.  Of  this  ncdure,  says  he,  are. 
those  of  ttie  imagination.  It  might  be  asked,  of  what  nature  ?  For  the 
preceding  sentence  had  not  described  the  nature  )f  any  class  of  -pleasures 


822  AIUS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Ho  had  said  that  it  was  every  man's  duty  to  make  the  spnere  of  his  inno- 
cent  pleasures  as  extensive  as  possible,  that  within  this  sphere  he  might 
find  a  safe  retreat  and  laudable  satisfaction.  The  transition,  therefore,  is 
loosely  made.  It  would  have  been  better,  if  he  had  said,  "  this  advantage 
we  gain,"  or  "  this  satisfaction  we  enjoy,"  by  means  of  the  pleasures  of  the 
imagination.    The  rest  of  the  sentence  is  correct. 

"  We  might  here  add,  that  the  pleasures  of  the  fancy  are  more  conduciv«s 
to  health  than  those  of  the  understanding,  which  are  worked  out  by  dint 
of  thinking,  and  attended  with  too  violent  a  labor  of  the  brain. 

IVbrlcd  out  by  diiit  of  thinking,  is  a  phrase  which  borders  too  nearly  on 
the  style  of  common  conversation,  to  be  admitted  into  polished  composition. 

"  Delightful  scenes,  whether  in  nature,  painting,  or  poetry,  have  a  kindly 
influence  on  the  body,  as  well  as  the  mind,  and  not  only  serve  to  clear  and 
brighten  the  imagination,  but  are  able  to  disperse  grief  and  melancholy, 
and  to  set  tlie  animal  spirits  in  pleasing  and  agreeable  motions.  For  this 
reason  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  in  his  Essay  upon  Health,  has  not  thought  it 
improper  to  prescribe  to  his  reader  a  poem  or  a  prospect,  where  he  particu 
iarly  dissuades  him  from  knotty  and  subtile  disquisitions,  and  advises  him 
to  pursue  studies  that  fill  the  mind  with  splendid  and  illustrious  objects,  as 
histories,  fables,  and  contemplations  of  nature." 

In  the  latter  of  these  two  periods  a  member  is  out  of  its  place.  Wliere 
lie  particidarly  dissuades  hiin  from  knotty  and  sicbtile  disquisitions,  ought 
to  precede  lias  not  tliougJit  it  iiwproper  to  prescribe,  ^-c. 

*•  I  have  in  this  paper,  by  way  to  introduction,  settled  the  notion  of  those 
pleiisures  of  the  imagination,  which  are  the  subject  of  my  present  under 
taking,  and  endeavored  by  several  considerations  to  recommend  to  my 
readers  the  pursuit  of  those  pleasures:  I  shall  in  my  next  paper  examine 
the  several  sources  from  whence  these  pleasures  are  derived." 

These  two  concluding  sentences  furnish  examples  of  projier  collocation 
of  circumstances.  We  formerly  showed  that  it  is  difficult  so  to  dispose 
them,  as  not  to  embarrass  the  principal  subject.  Had  the  following  inci 
dental  circumstances,  by  way  oj  introduction — by  several  considerations — in 
this  paper — iyi  the  next  paper,  haan  placed  in  any  other  situation,  the  sen 
tence  would  have  been  neither  so  neat,  nor  so  clear,  as  it  is  on  the  present 
construction. 


LXXXVII. 

BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH. 

Example, 

BLVNCA    CAPELLO. 

Bianca,  descended  from  the  noble  house  of  the  Capclli,  at  Venice,  and 

'a.ightcr  of  Bariolomco  Capello,  was  bom  in  1545.    Her  childhood  and 

urly  youth  passed  in  the  retirement  of  her  fatlicr's  palace,  where,  accord 

ig  to  tlio  custom  of  tlie  country,  she  conversed  only  v.-ith  her  family  and 

jrltttions. 

Opposite  to  the  palace  of  the  Capclli  was  the  house  of  the  Salviati 
where,  in  15G5,  Bianca,  having  entered  her  twentieth  year,  attracted,  by 
tno  charms  of  her  person,  the  attention  of  a  young  Florentine,  by  th« 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  323 

D»Tiie  of  Pietro  Buonaventuri,  whose  birth  was  obscure,  and  who  served 
in  the  family  of  the  Salviati  in  the  capacity  of  a  clerk.  Indebted  more  to 
nature  than  to  fortune,  possessing  a  fine  person,  insinuating  manners, 
and  an  aspiring  temper,  Pietro  secured  the  affections  of  Bianca,  and  they 
were  privately  married.  It  is  not  our  present  purpose  to  pursue  the  nar- 
rative of  her  adventures,  which  finally  led  to  a  separation  from  her  hus- 
band, nor  the  story  of  her  connexion  with  the  house  of  Medici.  Leaving 
these  details  to  the  historian,  we  propose  to  present  merely  those  traits  of 
her  character  by  which  she  was  peculiarly  distinguished. 

On  a  survey  of  the  life  of  Bianca  Capello,  whatever  may  be  thought  of 
t!ie  qualities  of  her  heart,  which,  it  must  be  confessed,  are  doubtful,  it  is 
impossible  not  to  be  struck  with  the  powers  of  her  mind,  by  which,  amidst 
itmumerable  obstacles,  she  maintained,  undiminished,  through  life,  that 
ascendancy  which  her  personal  charms  had  first  given  her  over  the  affec- 
tions of  a  capricious  prince.  The  determination  and  perseverance  with 
which  she  prosecuted  her  plans,  sufficiently  testify  her  energy  and  talents  : 
if,  in  effecting  the  end  proposed,  she  was  little  scrupulous  respecting  the 
means,  the  Italian  character,  the  circumstances  of  the  times,  the  disad- 
vantages attending  her  entrance  into  the  world,  subjected  to  artifice,  and 
entangled  in  fraud,  must  not  be  forgotten.  Brought  up  in  retirement  and 
obscurity,  thrown  at  once  into  the  most  trying  situations,  her  prudence, 
her  policy,  her  self-government,  her  knowledge  of  tl^e  human  mind,  and 
the  means  of  subjecting  it,  are  not  less  rare  than  admirable.  She  pos- 
sessed singular  penetration  in  discerning  fcharacters,  and  the  weaknesses 
of  those  with  whom  she  conversed,  which  she  skilfully  adapted  to  her 
purposes.  By  an  eloquence,  soft,  insinuating,  and  powerful,  she  prevailed 
over  her  friends;  while,  by  ensnaring  them  in  their  own  devices,  she 
made  her  enemies  subservient  to  her  views.  Such  was  the  fascination  of 
her  manners,  that  the  prejudices  of  those  by  whom  she  was  hated,  yielded, 
in  her  presence,  to  admiration  and  delight:  nothing  seemed  too  arduous 
for  her  talents ;  inexhaustible  in  resource,  whatever  she  undertook  she 
found  means  to  accomplish.  If  she  was  an  impassioned  character,  she 
was  uniformly  animated  by  ambition.  In  her  first  engagement  with 
Buonaventuri,  she  seems  to  have  been  influenced  by  a  restless  entei-pris 
ing  temper,  disgusted  with  inactivity,  rather  than  by  love :  through  every 
scene  of  her  connexion  with  the  duke,  her  motives  are  sufficiently  obvious. 
With  a  disposition  like  that  of  Bianca,  sensibility  and  tenderness,  the 
appropriate  virtues  of  the  sex,  are  not  to  be  expected.  Real  greatness 
has  in  it  a  character  of  simplicity,  with  which  subtlety  and  craft  are 
wholly  incompatible  :  the  genius  of  Bianca  was  such  as  fitted  her  to  take 
a  part  in  political  intrigues,  to  succeed  in  courts,  and  rise  to  the  pinnacle 
nf  power ;  but,  stained  with  cruelty,  and-  debased  by  falsehood,  if  her  tal 
ents  excite  admiration,  they  produce  no  esteem ;  and  while  her  accom- 
plishments dazzle  the  mind,  they  fail  to  interest  the  heart. 

Majestic  in  stature,  beautiful  in  her  person,  animated,  eloquent,  and  in 
sinuating,  she  commanded  all  hearts ;  a  power  of  which  the  tranquillity 
and  silence  of  her  own  enabled  her  to  avail  herself  to  the  utmost.  Ill 
health  impaired  her  beauty  at  an  early  period  5  many  portraits  of  her  re- 
main, in  all  of  which  she  is  repi-esented  as  grand-duchess,  when  the  first 
bloom  of  her  charms  had  faded.  A  beautiful  portrait  of  her,  in  the  ducal 
robes,  is  preserved  in  the  palace  of  the  Capelli,  at  Padua ;  several  are 
likewise  to  be  found  in  the  Palazzo  Pelti,  at  Plorence ;  and  one,  also,  said 
ro  he  still  superior,  in  Palazzo  Caprara,  at  Bologna. 


324  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Lxxxvin. 

COLLEGE  EXERCISES.* 

The  preceding  lessons,  it  is  thought,  contain  most,  if  not  all, 
of  the  principles  necessary  to  be  understood  by  the  student  to 
prepare  him  for  the  performance  of  such  exercises  as  are 
generally  prescribed  in  an  academic  course.  The  following 
specimens  of  the  exercises  of  those  to  whom  academic  honors 
have  been  awarded,  are  presented,  with  the  hope  that  they 
may  be  useful  to  those  who  may  hereafter  have  similar  exer 
cises  to  perform. 

CONFERENCE,  COLLOQUY,  AITO  DIALOGUE. 

A  Conference  is  a  discoursing  between  two  or  more,  for  the  purpose  of 
instruction,  consultation,  or  deliberation  ;  or,  it  may,  in  a  technical  sense, 
be  defined,  an  examination  of  a  subject  by  comparison.  It  is  a  species 
of  conversation,  and  is  fi;encrally  confined  to  particular  subjects  and  des 
criptions  of  persons. 

A  Dialogue  signifies  a  speech  between  two  persons.  It  is  mostly  ficti- 
tious, and  is  written  as  if  it  were  spoken.  It  is  always  fonnal  and  contains 
an  assertion  or  question  with  a  reply  and  a  rejoinder. 

A  Colloquy  is  a  species  of  dialogue.  It  literally  signifies,  the  act  of 
talking  together  and  is  not  confined  to  any  particular  number  of  person* 
nor  subjects. 

Example  of  a  Theme, 

"Est  Deus  in  nobis."    OviD,  Lib.  I. 

Metaphysical  speculations  are,  of  all  others,  the  most  wild  and  most  ex- 
posed to  error.  The  relation  between  volition  and  action,  mind  and  body, 

*  The  specimens  and  models  here  presented,  are  taken,  by  the  consent 
of  the  respective  authors,  from  the  files  of  one  of  our  most  respectable  uni 
yersities.  To  the  highly  respected  President  of  that  university,  the  author 
is  greatly  indebted  for  the  kind  facilities  rendered,  by  whicli  he  was  enabled 
to  examine  the  files  of  that  institution,  and  to  select  such  as  he  had  been 
permitted  to  copy.  He  does  not,  however,  consider  himself  authorized 
more  particularly  to  name  the  institution  nor  its  presiding  officer.  It  it 
due,  also,  to  the  gentlemen  wliose  juvenile  exercises  he  has  been  pennitted 
liere  to  present,  to  state,  that  their  reluctant  permission  has  been  given  with 
the  understanding  that  their  names  will  not  bo  mentioned  in  connexion 
with  the  exorcises.  The  question  may,  perhaps,  be  asked,  whv  exercises 
of  this  kind  are  presented  at  all.  To  this  the  author  replies,  that  a  know- 
ledge of  what  has  been  done  on  any  given  occasion  cannot  be  without  its 
uso  to  those  who  are  called  upon  to  exert  their  talents  on  anv  similar  occa 
•ion  ;  and  if  any  of  the  following  exercises  should  be  considered  as  s{)eci 
mens,  rather  than  models,  the  author  can  only  say,  that  he  deems  examples 
of  this  kind,  which  can  be  emulated  by  the  student,  more  encouraging  thap 
faultless  models.  It  is  the  business  of  the  toacher  to  infuse  that  spirit  whick 
hal*  Tiont  a*  it*  motto,  —  "  Krrehior." 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  32D 

the  decisive  influence  of  the  former  on  the  motions  of  the  latter,  and  ho\» 
this  inter-'ourse  obtains,  are  subtleties,  the  investigation  of  which  has  evei 
baffled  the  ingenuity  of  philosophers.  Nor  is  reasoning  on  this  subject 
in  any  respect  conclusive.  It  sets  out  from  hypothethis,  and,  instead  of 
leading  to  any  just  conclusions,  usually  leaves  the  inquirer  in  a  labyrinth 
of  doubt. 

In  spite  of  these  obstacles,  hoAvever,  there  is  something  in  the  mind  of 
man  that  takes  a  delight  in  diving  into  these  mysteries ;  a  curiosity  which 
is  always  alive  and  restless,  grasping  at  some  hidden  truth ;  a  fancy  that 
is  prone  to  explore  an  unknown  path,  —  that  loves  to  float  in  whimsical 
reveries.     "  Est  Deus  in  nobis." 

On  our  first  introduction  to  this  world,  whether  our  minds  are  free  from 
ideas  and  vacant,  "  like  a  piece  of  white  paper,"  as  Mr.  Locke  quaintly 
phrases  it ;  and,  if  this  be  the  fact,  whether,  as  originally  cast  by  the  crea- 
tor, they  differ  as  widely  in  quality,  as  the  various  kinds  of  white  paper 
from  the  mill ;  —  are  questions  which  have  not  yet  been  determined. 
When  we  contemplate  society,  we  are  struck  with  the  diversities  of  char- 
acter which  it  discloses.  We  ask  ourselves,  how  it  happens,  that  such 
vai'ieties  of  genius  exist;  how  it  is,  that  one  person  has  a  mathematical, 
another  a  poetical  turn  of  mind ;  that  one  has  an  imagination,  that 
"  bounds  from  earth  to  heaven,  and  sports  in  the  clouds,"  and  another 
possesses  a  mind  that  gropes  in  the  deepest  recesses  of  philosophy,  and 
learns  to  conceive  the  most  abstruse  truth.  We  wonder  for  a  while,  and 
presently  conclude,  that  all  the  peculiarities  of  each  mind  are  coeval  with 
its  existence,  and  impressed  by  the  Deity. 

For  my  own  part,  although  I  consider  these  speculations  to  be  as  unin 
portant,  as  they  are  doubtful,  they  frequently  find  an  indulgence  in  my 
mind.  Nor  are  they  altogether  fruitless.  They  answer  the  purpose  of  a 
romance.  They  amuse  the  imagination,  and  occupy  the  vacant  thought 
of  a  leisure  hour.  I  am  inclined  to  the  belief,  that,  as  our  minds  may  be 
considered  to  emanate  from  the  same  creative  spirit,  they  bear  a  nearer 
resemblance  to  each  other  than  we  are  apt  to  imagine.  It  is  probable 
that  our  minds  are  all  equally  endowed,  and,  at  first,  are  precisely  the 
same.  That  they  are  susceptible  of  like  impressions.  And  if  a  case  be 
supposed,  where  two  persons  could  be  brought  up  in  such  a  manner,  that 
every  external  circumstance,  having  the  least  effect  on  the  senses,  could 
be  precisely  the  same  to  each,  that  their  dispositions  would  be  in  all  res 
pects  similar;  indeed,  the  men  would  be  perfectly  alike.  This  hypothesis 
is  reconcilable  with  the  maxim  (under  existing  ch-cumstances)  that  no 
two  persons  were  ever  in  every  respect  alike.  For,  in  the  earliest  state  of 
the  mind,  it  is  so  susceptible  of  impressions,  that  the  slightest  circum- 
stances vary  its  direction  and  character.  Frivolous  causes  produce  the 
most  important  and  lasting  effects.  Whence,  we  may  readily  account  for 
the  numberless  shades  of  character,  as  resulting,  not  from  an  original 
difference  in  minds,  but  from  the  secret  operation  of  physical  causes. 

It  is  curious  to  observe  the  relation  between  the  senses  of  seeing  and 
hearing,  and  the  mind,  and  how  sensibly  the  imperfections  of  the  former 
tend  to  sharpen  the  faculties  of  the  latter.  So  uniform  has  this  rule  held 
within  the  circle  of  my  own  acquaintance,  that  I  am  apt  to  conceive  one's 
intellectual  powers  merely  from  a  knowledge  of  his  faculties  of  sight. 
One  who  is  near-sighted,  for  example,  usually  possesses  mental  powers 
that  are  clear  and  nervous.  In  him,  on  the  contrary,  whose  vision  is 
bounded  only  by  the  horizon,  we  should  look  for  a  mind  capable  of  pleas- 

28 


326  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    TO    COMPOSITION. 

ing  in  the  arts  of  poetry  and  fiction  ;  for  he  embraces  at  a  glance  all  tQ« 
beauties  of  nature.  A  retentive  memory  is  also  naturally  associated  with 
one  who  hears  and  sees  with  difficulty.  Thus,  by  a  little  refinement,  (I 
think  rea.sonably,)  we  may  refer  the  different  faculties  of  the  mind  to  the 
constraction  of  the  senses.  The  different  bearings  of  these  causes  are 
olivious.  Thev  prove  the  importance  of  acquiring  a  habit  of  close  think- 
ing. He  who  hears  and  sees  with  difficulty,  treasures  up  what  he  learns 
with  care.  A  partial  blindness  invites  contemplation.  A  man  is  not 
liable  to  have  his  attention  distracted  by  frivolous  events.  They  are  if 
some  measm-e  shut  out    He  finds  a  study  everywhere. 

Example  of  a  Conference.* 

Public  Amusements,  Splendid  Religious  Ceremonies,  Warlike  ReparatumM 
and  Display,  and  a  Rigid  Police,  as  means  of  Despotic  Power. 

PUBLIC    AMUSEMENTS. 

Various  as  are  the  means  by  which  an  individual  may  acquire  despotic 
power  over  a  nation ;  none  are  more  easy  in  their  application,  or  more 
effectual  in  their  results,  than  the  mere  act  of  providing  and  supporting 
what,  in  such  cases,  are  most  eiToneously  called  public  amusements. 
PubUc  amusements  |  yes,  —  let  but  your  tyi-ant,  who  would  lord  it  \^ith 
impunity,  open  his  theatres,  provide  his  shows,  and  procure  ever}'  tiling 
that  can  please  the  fancy,  and  delight  the  eyes  and  ears  of  the  people, 
then  he  may  rest  in  security,  for  those  whom  he  would  make  slaves  are 
placed  upon  the  broad  road  that  leadeth  backward  to  darkness,  but  never 
onwards  to  light.  They  may  pause  at  first,  but  the  fatal  charm  soon  over- 
eomes  their  strength,  and,  blind  to  all  evil  consequences,  they  plunge 
madly  on  in  pursuit  of  present  pleasure. 

It  is  easy  to  show  how  the  people  are  so  readily  ay  J  so  fatally  de 
ceived,  —  it  requires  few  examples  and  little  reasoning  to  prove  that 
•emptations  are  strong,  indulgence  ruinous,  the  truth  is  written  within, 
cgioly  upon  our  hearts. 

I  cannot,  however,  pass  over  this  subject  without  calling  youf  attention 
to  one  of  tlie  most  instructive,  the  most  splendid,  and,  at  the  s.ime  time, 
most  appalling  portions  of  history,  the  latter  days  of  the  Konian  Empire. 
We  have  before  us  a  nation  that  fias  raised  itself  from  obscurity  to  gran 
dcur.  —  that  has  exchanged  the  name  of  exiles  and  vagabonds  for  the 
proud  title  of  conquerors  and  sovereigns  of  the  world ;  yet,  in  this  very 
{)eonlo,  in  their  proudest  day,  we  can  trace  the  seeds  of  corruption. 

Ihcy  had  early  acquired  a  taste  for  public  amusements,  that  had  evei 
been  gaining  strength,  and  that  was  soon  to  be  employed  as  the  certain 
means  of  working  their  dcstniction. 

The  Roman  frame  retained  as  yet  too  much  of  its  former  strength  and 
vigor  to  be  roughly  handled.  An  attempt  to  force  chains  upon  it  would 
lavc  called  forth  a  third  Hrutns  full  of  the  fire  and  patriotism  of  his  an- 
•cstoi-s.  They  who  aimed  at  the  imperial  purple,  knew  thi?,  and,  avoiding 
ill  violence,  sought  to  accomplish  their  designs  by  craft  and  subtlety 
Roman  citizens,  in  tlieir  amusements,  had  already  reached  the  limits, 
irhich  cannot  be  passed  with  impunity ;  the  only  work  that  remained  for 

*  One  part  only  of  this  Conference  is  nresented. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  327 

tyranny  was  to  lead  them  beyond  these  limits,  and  to  foster  their  growing 
carelessness  and  inattention  to  their  dearest  interests.  This  step  was 
Boon  taken.  Theatres  were  opened  in  all  quarters  of  the  city,  loaded 
with  every  embellishment  that  the  imagination  could  suggest,  or  that  un- 
bounded wealth  could  procure.  We  need  not  enter  into  a  detail  of  these 
amusements ;  it  sufficeth  our  purpose  to  point  out  how  readily  the  people 
fell  into  the  snare,  and  how  speedily  and  entire  was  the  niin  that  followed. 
As  had  been  rightly  conjectured,  the  people  soon  gathered  in  crowds  to 
these  exhibitions,  —  they  passed  almost  their  whole  lives  witliin  the  walls 
of  the  circus,  utterly  regardless  of  all  that  was  transacted  in  the  world 
without. 

Those  who  had  made  this  deadly  preparation,  who  had  tempted  a  na- 
tion to  its  ruin,  now  hastened  to  improve  the  opportunities  they  had 
acquired.  Not  in  secresy  and  fear,  but  openly,  and  with  full  confidence 
they  proceeded  to  fasten  their  chains  upon  a  slumbering  people.  And 
history  informs  us  how  complete  was  their  success,  —  "  Rome,  Rome  im- 
perial, bows  her  to  the  shock,"  —  the  work  of  her  slavery  was  finished,  — 
the  entrance  of  the  Goth  into  her  gates  was  a  mere  change  of  masters, 
for  she  long  before  had  fallen  and  was  conquered. 

The  case  we  have  just  cited  is  a  remarkable  one,  —  few  events  in  his 
tory  can  compare  wifii  it,  —  yet,  for  all  that,  it  is  not  to  be  rejected  as  an 
unfair  and  too  highly  colored  illustration  of  the  trath  of  our  positions. 
There  is  nothing  in  it  unnatural,  there  is  nothing  improbable,  and  should 
ihe  like  circumstances  at  any  time  occur,  I  had  almost  said  a  cliild  might 
predict  the  ruin  that  would  ensue. 

When  it  can  be  shown  how  business  and  pleasure,  attention  and  remiss 
ness,  can  go  hand  in  hand  together ;  in  short,  when  we  shall  see  a  nation 
utterly  devoted  to  amusements,  and,  at  the  same  time,  awake  to  all  its  in- 
terests, then  we  may  be  ready  to  give  our  example  and  positions  to  the 
wind. 

Example  of  a  Colloquy.* 

Difference  of  Manners  in  Ancient  Rome  cmd  Modem  Civilized  States 

To  a  careful  and  attentive  observer  of  human  nature,  the  history  of 
mankind  presents  an  interesting  and  instructive  but  mournful  picture. 
It  teaches  him  that  man  is  everywhere  the  same ;  but  however  the  pictui-e 
may  be  varied  by  circumstances,  however  different  the  light  in  which  it  is 
viewed,  the  leading  features  remain  ever  the  same.  In  no  portion  of  an " 
cient  history  are  we  more  struck  with  this  important  fact  than  in  that  of 
Rome.  In  considering  the  manners  of  that  people,  great  care  should  be 
taken  that  we  do  not  permit  the  classical  associations  of  our  boyhood  to 
give  us  a  too  favorable  opinion  of  their  character ;  and  again,  that  we  do 
not  run  into  the  opposite,  but  less  probable  error,  of  depreciating  their  real 
worth.  Cold,  indeed,  mxist  be  the  heart,  and  dull  the  understanding,  that 
can  contemplate  unmoved  the  history  of  the  Eternal  City,  which,  after 
all,  has  done  its  part  towards  communicating  to  the  world  civilization  and 
ohilosophy.  It  requires  no  extraordinary  stretch  of  the  imagination  to 
marshal  before  us,  in  patriotic  an-ay,  those  venerable  magistrates,  who, 
Tanquilly  seated  in  their  curule  chairs  defied  the  fury  of  Brennus  and 

*  One  part  only  of  this  Colloquy  is  presented. 


828  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMI'OSITION. 

his  barbarian  hordes ;  or  to  hear  Cicero  declaiming  with  honest  indigna 
tion  against  the  vices  and  insolence  of  Anthony  and  Verres.  Yet,  our 
admiration  must  gradually  subside,  when  we  reflect,  that  the  glory  with 
which  thev  were  surrounded,  was  purchased  by  the  misery  and  degrada- 
tion of  millions.  Did  we  see  the  Romans  in  their  true  colors,  we  should 
perceive  that  they  were  in  reality  a  selfish,  pei-fidious,  cruel,  and  supersti- 
tious race  of  barbarians,  endued  with  the  scanty  and  doubtful  v-irtues  of 
savage  life,  but  deformed  by  more  than  its  ordinary  excesses,  and  whose 
original  purity  of  manners  and  good  faith  among  themselves  did  not  en 
dure  a  moment  longer  than  it  enabled  them  to  subdue  the  rest  of  man 
kind.  Of  the  many  mistakes  which  our  classical  fondness  for  the  Komans 
have  led  us  into  respecting  them,  there  is  not  a  greater  or  more  unfounded 
one  than  the  high  opinion  we  are  apt  to  entertain  of  their  domestic  habits. 
'J'he  Queen  of  Cities,  throned  upon  her  seven  hills,  in  marble  majesty, 
the  mistress  of  a  world  conquered  by  the  valor  of  her  sons,  is  a  picture 
of  our  imagination,  which  we  are  unwilling  to  spoil  by  filling  up  all  its 
parts  with  too  curious  accuracy.  Certain  it  is  that  infonnation  enough  is 
to  be  obtained  from  Roman  authors  to  prepare  us  for  a  scene  of  much 
more  moderate  splendor  in  the  capital  of  Italy.  From  them  we  may 
learn  that  all  the  points  upon  which  the  imagination  reposes  with  so 
much  complacency  and  delight,  are  perfectly  consistent  with  misery,  dis- 
order, and  filth.  We  may  learn,  that  though  their  Venus  never  attracted 
public  notice  in  a  hooped  petticoat,  and  though  their  Apollo  never  dashed 
in  a  blue  swallow-tailed  coat  with  brass  buttons,  yet,  that  the  costume  of 
the  day,  whatever  it  might  be,  was  pretty  generally  bestowed  upon  their 
deities.  We  may  learn,  that  the  Romans,  with  all  their  wealth  and  power, 
and  ingenious  luxury,  enjoyed  but  little  real  cleanliness  and  comfort. 
More  of  that  most  desirable  and  excellent  article,  comfort,  may  be  had 
by  any  one  among  us,  than  could  have  been  enjoyed  by  a  Roman  noble, 
who  rode  in  carriages  without  springs,  or  on  saddles  without  stirrups,  or 
dined  without  knives  and  forks,  or  lived  in  rooms  without  chimneys. 
And,  having  dulv  weighed  these  and  similar  points  of  minute  history,  we 
may  bring  ourselves  to  adopt  more  sober  views  of  the  magnificence  of 
ancient  Rome,  and  of  an  ancient  Roman.  In  spite  of  their  admiration 
for  Grecian  manners,  the  Romans  were  ill-calculated  for  every  elegant 
l)ursuit.  After  abandoning  the  rigid  virtues  by  which  Cincinnatus  reached 
the  summit  of  glory,  tliey  gave  way  to  a  corruption  of  manners,  and  an 
insatiable  rapacity,  which  would  have  remained  a  solitary  example  of  hu 
man  depravity,  had  not  revolutionary  France  exhibited  scenes  still  more 
horrid  and  revolting.  The  tyranny  of  the  Romans,  and  of  the  French 
under  Ronaparte,  is  stamped  with  the  same  horrid  features,  the  same  un- 
liounded  and  unprincipled  lust  of  dominion  rendered  both  the  disturbers 
of  human  rei)osc.  By  the  pride  and  avidity  of  the  descendants  of  Romu- 
lus, (ircece  was  stripped  of  her  pictures  an'd  statues  ;  by  the  rapacity  and 
avidity  of  the  Directorial  Government,  and  that  Jacobin  General,  Italy 
was  robbed  of  these  identical  stntues,  and  of  paintings  more  exquisitely 
iH'nutiful  even  than  those  of  Zcuxis  or  Apcllcs.  If  to  plunder  tlie  van- 
miishcil  of  cverv  thing  that  can  contribute  to  the  comfort,  instruction,  or 
the  ornament  ot  society  bo  an  object  of  merited  censure,  both  nations  are 
ci|ually  culpable,  both  ccjually  tyrants  and  robbers.  The  ravager.  the  ex- 
terminator, Verres,  w;is  not  worse  than  many  others  of  the  Roman  Pro- 
con.snls.  Who  can  read  the  Verrine  orations  and  net  curse  from  hia 
icart  this  cruel  and  rapacious  people  ?    The  money  of  the  unhappy  SI 


AIDS    TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  329 

cilians  found  its  way  to  his  coffers,  and  their  grain,  whilst  they  were 
starving,  into  his  granaries.  The  axes  of  his  lictors  were  blunted  on 
their  necks,  and  the  favor  of  being  put  to  death  at  a  single  blow  was  sold 
at  a  heavy  price.  Turn  we  from  the  cruelty,  injustice,  and  rapacity  of 
Verres  1  As  we  turn  our  eyes  from  the  extortions  of  the  Sicilian  Praetor, 
they  may  perchance  light  upon  the  newspapers  of  the  day,  and  they  will 
there  find  scenes  equally  infamous  and  deplorable.  The  deeds  of  Verres 
stflnd  not  alone  in  the  history  of  the  world.  What  think  we  of  those 
slaughtered  at  Vicksburg  ?  "  It  was  in  vain  that  the  unhappy  men  cried 
out,  We  are  American  citizens ;  the  bloodthirsty  mob,  deaf  to  all  they 
could  urge  in  their  own  defence,  ordered  the  infamous  punishment  to  be 
inflicted.  Thus  were  innocent  American  citizens  publicly  murdered, 
while  the  only  words  they  uttered  amidst  their  cruel  sufferings  were, 
*'  We  are  American  citizens."  "  O  Liberty !  O  sound  once  delightful  to 
every  American  ear  !  0  sacred  privilege  of  American  citizenship !  Once 
sacred,  now  trampled  upon."  Tell  me  not  that  the  storms  which  now 
agitate  the  surface  of  our  institutions  are  preferable  to  the  calm  unruffled 
sea  of  despotism  in  Russia  and  Austria ;  give  me  the  despotism  of  a 
Nicolas  and  a  Metternich,  nay,  even  the  tyranny  of  a  Nero,  or  a  Caligula, 
any  thing  but  the  despotism  and  tyranny  of  an  infuriated  mob. 

The  taste  for  gladiatorial  murder,  prevalent  in  Rome  for  centuries,  and 
often  indulged  to  the  most  extravagant  excess,  implies  so  wide  a  devia- 
tion from  the  common  feelings  and  principles  of  humanity,  that  it  is  to 
be  regarded  as  an  important  fact,  in  the  moral  history  of  man.  Moralists 
will  tell  us  that  the  truly  brave  are  never  cruel ;  but  to  this  the  Roman 
Ampitheatres  say,  No.  There  sat  the  conquerors  of  the  world  coolly  to 
enjoy  the  torture  and  the  death  of  men  who  had  never  offended  them, 
'i'wice  in  one  day  came  the  matrons  and  senators,  of  Rome  to  the  butchery ; 
and,  when  glutted  with  bloodshed,  the  Roman  ladies  sat  down  in  the  wet 
arena,  streaming  with  the  blood  of  their  victims,  to  a  luxurious  supper. 
But  enough  of  these  humiliating  details. 

The  moral  to  be  derived  from  Roman  history,  if  properly  applied,  is 
most  excellent,  and  cannot  be  too  often,  nor  too  strongly  inculcated.  It 
is  that  the  loss  of  civil  liberty  involves  a  destruction  of  every  feeling 
which  distinguishes  man  from  the  inferior  part  of  the  creation,  leaving 
his  faculties  to  vegetate  in  indolence  or  to  become  biutalized  by  sensuali- 
ty ;  that  public  opinion,  when  suffered  to  wast*  its  energies  in  wild  ap- 
plause of  faction  or  tyranny,  may  become  one  of  the  most  subservient 
mstruments  of  oppression,  and  even  bow  its  neck  to  the  ground  ere  the 
foot  of  the  tyrant  be  prepared  to  tread  upon  it. 


LXXXIX. 

ESSAY,  TREATISE,  TRACT,  THESIS 

An  Essay,  literally  means  nothing  more  than  a  trial,  or  aia 
attempt.     It  is  sometimes  used  to  designate  in  a  specific  man 
28* 


330  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

ner  an  author's  attempt  to  illustrate  any  point.  It  is  con^- 
raorily  applied  to  small  detached  pieces,  which  contain  only 
the  general  thoughts  of  a  writer  on  any  given  subject,  and 
afford  room  for  amplification  into  details.  Some  authors 
modestly  used  the  term  for  their  connected  and  finished  en- 
deavours to  elucidate  a  doctrine.* 

A  Treatise  f  is  more  systematic  than  an  Essay.  It  treats 
on  the  subject  in  a  methodical  form,  and  conveys  the  idea  of 
something  labored,  scientific,  and  instructive. 

A  Tract  t  is  only  a  species  of  small  treatise,  drawn  up 
upon  particular  occasions,  and  published  in  a  separate  form. 

A  Thesis  is  a  position  or  proposition  which  a  person  ad 
vances,  and  offers  to  maintain,  or  which  is  actually  maintained 
by  argument. 

Essays  ai'c  either  moral,  political,  philosophical,  or  literary ;  they  are 
the  crude  attempts  of  the  youth  to  digest  his  own  thoughts,  or  they  are 
the  more  mature  attempts  of  the  man  to  communicate  his  thouj^lito  to 
others.  Of  the  former  description  are  prize  Essays  in  schools,  and  of  the 
latter  are  the  Essays  innumerable  which  have  been  published  on  every 
subject  since  the  days  of  Bacon. 

IVeatises  are  mostly  written  on  etliical,  political,  or  speculative  sub- 
ject?, such  as  Fcnclon's,  Milton's,  or  Locke's  "  Treatise  on  Education," 
Ue  Lolme's  "  Treatise  on  the  Constitution  of  England." 

Tracts  are  ephcmeial  productions,  mostly  on  political  and  religious 
subjects,  which  seldom  survive  the  occasion  which  gave  them  birth.  Of 
this  description  are  the  pamphlets  which  daily  issue  from  the  press  for  or 
against  the  measures  of  government,  or  the  public  measures  of  any  par- 
ticular party. 

The  Essay  is  the  most  popular  mode  of  writing;  it  suits  the  writer 
who  has  not  talent  or  inclination  to  pursue  his  inquiries  farther,  and  it 
suits  the  generality  of  readers,  who  are  amused  witli  variety  and  super- 
ficiality. The  Treatise  is  adapted  for  the  student,  who  will  not  be  con- 
tented with  the  superficial  Essay,  when  more  ample  materials  are  within 
his  reach. 

The  Tract  is  formed  for  the  political  or  religious  partisan,  and  receives 
its  interest  from  the  occurrence  of  Uie  motive.  The  Dissertation  inter- 
ests the  disputant.     ( See  Dissertation^  page  334.) 

»  Sco  Locke's  "  Essay  on  the  Understanding,"  and  Beattie's  "  Essay  on 
Truth."  ^ 

t  Treatise  and  Tract  have  both  the  same  derivation,  from  the  Latin  traht 
to  draw,  manage^  or  handle  and  its  participle,  tractus. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  331 

Examvle  1st  of  an  Essay. 

LITERATUILE. 

The  developement  of  nind,  the  exertions  of  talent,  tlie  labo»'3  of  indiw- 
try,  are  all  subjects  intimately  interwoven  with  the  moral  character  of  8 
rational  and  accountable  being.  It  is  a  curious  and  interesting  investiga- 
tion to  trace  the  history  of  man,  as  he  emerges  from  a  state  cf  nature,  and 
passes  through  the  successive  gradations,  from  mere  animal  existence, 
to  a  state  of  refined  civilization  and  moral  culture.  And  it  is  equally 
delightful  to  the  man  of  letters,  to  behold  the  effects  of  learning  in  its 
various  stages,  in  amending  the  inward  state  of  manlcind,  as  the  refine- 
ments of  luxury  add  to  their  external  convenience. 

It  is  a  common  remark  with  the  historian,  that  the  discovery  of  the  use 
of  iron  is  the  first  step  from  savage  to  civilized  life.  The  remark  is  just, 
but  must  be  received  in  a  limited  sense ;  for  there  is  an  internal  as  well  as 
external  history ;  a  history  of  mind  as  well  as  of  matter ;  an  intellectual 
civilization  distinct  from  the  history  of  nations,  and  independent  of  the 
combinations  of  beauty  of  figure  and  of  color.  What  iron  is  to  the  animal 
nature  of  man,  literature  is  to  his  intellectual  condition.  The  former  sup- 
plies him  with  the  means  of  defence,  enables  him  to  overcome  the  debility 
of  his  organic  powers,  and  endues  him  with  factitious  strength,  as  useful 
as  that  which  nature  has  conferred.  The  latter  preserves  the  acquisitions 
of  the  former,  guides  its  operations,  concentrates  its  usefulness,  and  enables 
him  to  avail  himself  of  the  achievements  of  genius  struggling  with  the 
inertness  of  matter,  or  fettered  by  the  restrictions  of  ignorance  and  bar- 
barity. The  history  of  literature  is  the  history  of  the  noblest  powers  of 
man,  There  is  a  sameness  in  savage  life,  which  uffbrds  but  little  interest 
to  speculation ;  and  confines  the  investigations  of  the  philosopher  and  man 
of  observation  within  narrow  limits.  The  scope  of  his  abilities  is  narrow 
and  contracted.  The  construction  of  rude  implements,  the  provision  of 
the  necessaries  of  life,  the  strifes,  collisions,  and  bitter  feuds  of  hostile  and 
ambitious  chiefs,  deficient  in  interest,  because  deficient  in  incidents ;  the 
simple  tales  of  love  or  the  sombre  stories  of  licentiousness,  these  form  the 
material  of  the  history  of  nations,  upon  Avhom  science  has  never  beamed, 
p.or  literature  shed  its  renovating  rays.  In  the  relation  of  these  incidents, 
there  is  no  history  of  mind,  no  account  of  the  progress  of  intellect,  further 
than  what  is  observed  in  the  ingenuity  of  mechanical  contrivance,  limited 
by  the  ignorance  of  the  properties  of  things.  But  the  invention  ot  letters, 
preceded  by  the  mysticism  of  hieroglyphic  symbols,  gave  a  new  face  to 
the  world  •,  enlarged  the  subjects  of  knowledge,  and  changed  man  from  a 
mere  animal  to  an  intellectual  being.  The  history  of  literature,  from  the 
invention  of  letters  to  the  present  day,  involves  all  that  is  interesting  in 
the  history  of  man.  To  what  purpose  would  the  divine  gifts  of  speech 
and  reason  have'been  conferred,  unless  the  monuments  of  their  achieve- 
ments should  have  more  stability  than  could  exist  as  they  float  on  the 
recollections  of  a  single  generation.  The  animal  nature  of  man  might, 
so  far  as  posterity  is  concerned,  be  considered  the  nobler  because  the  more 
permanent  part  of  his  being.  The  structures  which  his  hands  have  reared, 
though  still  amenable  to  the  laws  of  decay,  would  survive  the  shocks  of 
dges.  while  no  monument  would  exist  of  his  immortal  spirit ;  no  recollec- 


332  AIDS    TO    ENGLIhH    COMPOSITION 

tion  remain  of  that  which  distinguishes  hun  from  tlie  inferior  order  t/ 
beings.  Age  would  succeed  to  age  without  witnessing  any  accession  UJ 
the  liclds  of  knowledge.  Traditionary  lore,  like  the  rays  of  light,  wouli 
vary  in  its  import  as  it  passed  from  hand  to  hand,  and  one  generatiow 
could  not  be  enriched  by  the  acquisitions  of  its  predecessor.  But  the 
invention  of  letters  has  established  a  chancery  by  which  the  acquisitions 
of  one  age  have  been  handed  down  as  a  rich  inheritance  to  its  successor; 
while  the  later  age,  like  the  posterity  of  an  ancient  family,  has  revelled  in 
the  riches  entailed  by  its  ancestors.  Such  are  the  effects  of  literature, 
considered  only  as  it  enlarges  the  fields  of  knowledge,  and  gives  a  wider 
range  to  the  exercise  of  the  intellectual  faculties. 

But  there  is  another  and  a  more  interesting,  because  more  important, 
view  to  be  taken  of  its  influence,  as  it  operates  6n  the  moral  nature  of 
mankind.  In  the  construction  of  implements  of  defence,  in  the  an-ange- 
ment  of  architectural  convenience,  in  the  pursuit  of  the  objects  of  sense, 
man  is  superior  to  some  species  of  the  brute  creation,  only  as  his  corporeal 
powers  are  better  adapted  to  mechanical  exertion.  The  bee,  the  beaver, 
the  ant,  and  other  inferior  orders,  rival  the  most  successful  efforts  of  man 
in  the  construction  of  a  habitation  adapted  to  the  respective  exigencies  of 
each.  But  thei/  operate  by  instinct,  —  his  labors  are  the  suggestions  of 
necessity  in  conference  with  inventive  powers ;  and  it  is  a  curious  investi- 
gation to  tmce  the  gradations  from  destitution  to  comfort,  from  comfort  to 
convenience,  and  from  convenience  to  case,  and,  in  its  proper  connexion, 
the  moral  influence  of  each  upon  the  character  of  mankind.  There  it 
will  be  found  that  the  vaunted  nobleness  of  savage  nature,  the  magna- 
nimity ascribed  by  some  even  of  the  present  day,  to  the  uncultivated  states 
of  society,  are  but  the  chimeras  of  prejudice,  or  at  least  but  erroneous 
deductions  from  solitary  examples.  The  history  of  literature,  will  abun- 
dantly show  that  such  instances  are  but  the  taper  in  the  dungeon,  which 
appeare  the  brighter  from  the  darkness  by  which  it  is  surrounded ;  while 
in  the  improved  forms  of  life,  in  those  ages  when  the  brightness  of  learn- 
ing has  dispelled  the  clouds  in  the  minds  of  men,  and  day  has  da^vncd 
upon  the  eyes  of  all,  the  aspen  flame  is  eclipsed  by  brighter  light,  and  is 
unnoticed,  because  it  is  unfavored  by  the  advantages  of  contrast 

Laws  owe  their  permanency  to  their  consistency ;  and  their  consistency 
is  mainly  to  be  attributed  to  a  wise  consideration  of  the  exigencies  of 
society,  deduced  from  the  operations  of  cause  and  effect  upon  the  human 
mind.  When  history,  therefore,  is  silent,  their  deductions  must  be  made 
from  a  limited  view  of  society ;  and,  like  all  conclusions  drawn  from  va- 
riotis  views,  are  likely  to  be  erroneous.  It  is  letters  which  give  a  tongue 
to  history,  and  provide  it  with  a  distinct  utterance.  It  is  letters  which 
make  the  past  a  monitor  to  the  present^  and  the  present  a  guide  to  the 
future. 

The  view  wliicli  wo  have  thus  taken  of  literature  is  narrow  and  circura- 
smbcd.  Indeed,  the  stibject  is  as  exhaustless  as  its  objects  are  innumer- 
able. He  must  be  dead  to  the  most  refined  pleasures  of  which  his  nature 
is  susceptible,  who  is  deaf  to  the  claims  of  literature  to  his  attention,  or  in 
Wind  to  the  importance  and  value  of  learning 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  333 

Example  2d  of  an  Essay. 
The  Pleasure  derived  from  the  Fine  Arts  ^  by  the  Artist  and  Common  Spectator, 

The  pleasure  derived  from  the  Fine  Arts  is  doubtless  proportioned  to  our 
capacity  of  appreciating  them ;  for  they  address  themselves  chiefly  to  the 
imagination  and  the  sensil^ility.  The  mere  pleasures  of  sense  every  man 
may  feel;  but  those  derived  from  intellect  and  sentiment  are  more  limited, 
and  of  a  higher  order.  Hence  it  is,  that  ihe  artist  feasts  on  his  self- 
created  treasures,  and  lives  on  fancy's  imagery,  whilst  the  hieroglyphical 
daub  of  a  sign-painter  would  be  more  attractive  to  the  common  spectator 
than  the  hues  of  Titian,  or  the  bold  master-strokes  of  a  Michael  Angelo. 
Taste  is  a  sentiment  of  the  soul.  It  is  a  keen  perception  of  the  sublime 
and  beautiful  in  art  and  natm-e.  United  with  genius,  it  even  creates  to 
itself  images  surpassing  human  excellence ;  objects  which  exist,  perhaps, 
but  in  the  painter's  and  poet's  vision.  Guido  coveted  the  wings  of  an 
angel,  that  he  might  behold  the  beatified  spirits  of  paradise,  and  there- 
by form  an  archangel  such  as  his  imagination  was  obliged  to  substitute. 
How  sublime  must  have  been  the  vision  which  gave  the  object  his  im- 
agination sought  for  !  How  intense  the  feeling  which  thus  transported 
him  from  earth  to  heaven  ! 

To  express  the  passions  by  outward  signs  is  the  artist's  aim ;  and  we 
may  add,  his  envied  privilege.  What  delight  to  see  the  cold  and  gloomy 
canvas  expand  with  life ;  the  dull  void  banished  by  the  melting  eye,  the 
■graceful,  form,  the  persuasive  suppliant,  the  conquering  hero !  Every 
touch  adds  something  to  the  soul's  expression,  till  the  enraptm-ed  painter 
yields  himself  up  to  the  delightful  contemplation  of  his  new  creation.  "  I, 
too,  am  a  painter,"  exclaimed  Correggio,  with  involuntary  transport, 
while  contemplating  a  work  of  the  divine  Raphael ;  "  I,  too,  am  a  painter." 
Such  was  the  enraptured  feeling  which  would,  otherwise,  have  been  chilled 
by  the  cold  pressure  of  his  wants  and  poverty. 

To  common  observers,  the  most  beautiful  painting  may  seem  but  an 
assemblage  of  forms,  and  the  most  exquisite  poem  but  doggerel  rhyme. 
The  higher  efforts  of  art  produce  but  little  effect  on  uncultivated  minds. 
It  is  (as  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  observes)  only  the  lowest  style  of  arts, 
whether  of  painting,  poetry,  or  music,  that  may  be  said,  in  the  vulgai 
sense,  to  be  naturally  pleasing.  Taste,  and  a  just  discrimination,  are  the 
results  of  education.  The  concertos  of  Steibell  and  Clementi  would  be 
jargon  to  the  ear  accustomed  only  to  the  monotonous  tones  of  "Hob  or 
Nob,"  and  "  Yankee  Doodle,"  nor  would  the  admirer  of  "  Punchinello," 
or  "  Jack  the  Giant  Killer,"  be  enraptured  with  the  grace  and  dignity  of 
an  Apollo  Bclvidere,  or  a  Venus  de  Medicis. 

That  a  susceptibility  and  love  of  the  sublime  and  beautiful  are  a  source 
of  happiness,  who  can  doubt,  that  has  seen  the  "Aurora  "  of  Guido  1  How 
rich,  how  sublime  the  fancy,  which  could  produce  so  enchanting  an  as- 
semblage of  all  that  is  graceful  and  lovely !  and  how  animated,  how  en- 
rdpture-j,  the  feelings  of  him  whom  a  refined  taste  renders  capable  of  ap- 
preciating them !  Dupaty's  soul  melted  at  the  view  of  Raphael's  "Incendia 
del  Borgo."  He  saw  not,  in  that  moment  of  enraptured  feeUng,  a  pictured 
flame,  but  the  devouring  element,  raging,  enveloping,  and  consuming  the 
helpless  and  despairing  multitude.  To  look  on  such  a  production  with 
total  indifference  is  impossible.    Apcllr.s's  critic  was  a  competent  judge 


334  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

of  the  representation  of  a  sandal,  and  Moli^re's  old  woman  could  decide 
upon  the  nature  of  comic  humor ;  but  it  is  the  artist  and  connoisseur 
alone,  wlio  can  judge,  appreciate,  and  feel  the  highest  order  of  color,  mo- 
dification, and  expression. 

The  pDrtrait  painter  also  claims  our  attention  and  gratitude.  He  who 
gives  to  our  weeping  eyes  the  form  of  the  beloved  and  departed  friend ; 
wljose  magic  touch  arrests  beauty  in  its  progress  to  decay,  and  whoso 
pencil  immortalizes  the  revered  forms  of  the  hero  and  the  statesman ;  the 
sjul-brcathing  expression  of  a  Washington,  a  Franklin,  and  an  Ames. 

I'aiuting  may,  perhaps,  be  said  to  be  the  acme  of  the  arts,  since  it 
:harms  by  so  many  various  branches,  and  admits  of  such  infinite  variety 
jf  color  and  expression ;  but  let  not  the  "  verba  ardentia  "  of  'the  poet  be 
robbed  of  their  honors.  The  lyre  of  a  Milton,  a  CoA^^jer,  a  Bryant,  and  a 
Wordsworth,  can  never  breathe  other  than  harmonious  sounds.  Their 
words  melt  into  ideas,  as  the  objects  of  natiu*e  gather  light  and  color  from 
the  sun. 

Shall  we  not  allow  the  poet,  then,  his  joys  and  honors  1  Shall  the 
emanations  of  his  fancy  shine  on  hearts  cold  and  dead  to  its  rays  ?  No ! 
Through  the  tear  of  sensibility  we  see  his  power ;  we  feel  in  the  tender 
accents  of  the  voice  that  trembles  while  it  reads. 

Since  the  pleasures  derived  from  the  Fine  Arts  are  so  exquisite,  both  to 
the  artist  and  spectator,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  our  sources  of  happi- 
ness might  be  greatly  extended  by  their  liberal  cultivation.  That  arts 
and  morals  are  materially  connected,  there  is  no  doubt.  Horace  ob8er\'es : 

%  "  Inpcnuas  didicissc  fldeliter  artes, 

Eniolllt  mores,  ncc  siiiit  esse  feros."  « 

And  could  this  spirit,  this  admiration  of  the  beautiful,  be  generouslv  cul- 
tivated, the  genius  of  our  soil  might  proudly  ascend  the  summit  of  Par 
nassus.  Public  favor  is  the  most  powerful  stimulus  to  talent-,  exhibitions 
therefore,  of  the  best  productions,  both  in  painting  and  sculpture,  will 
have  a  tendency  to  diffuse  a  general  taste,  and  to  inspire  a  spirit  of  emu- 
lation, from  which  the  most  beneficial  results  may  be  anticipated.  Let  us 
not  suflTer  the  artists  who  now  grace  our  shores  to  forsake  us,  for  the  want 
of  that  patronage  which  it  should  be  our  pride  and  pleasure  to  bestow 
We  cannot,  indeed,  expect  to  rival  the  treasures  of^  the  Louvre  or  the 
Vatican ;  but  from  the  exercise  of  native  talent,  and  from  tlie  specimens 
of  art  we  already  i)Ossess,  much  may  be  expected.  In  the  cabinets  of 
nrivate  individuals  in  our  citv,  may  be  found  productions  sufficient  to 
tbnn  a  choice  collection  for  pu1)lic  exhibition,  and  it  is  to  the  liberality  and 
patronage  of  their  possessoi-s  that  Ave  look  for  such  encouragement  as'  shall 
Btimukte  the  young  artist  to  immortalize  his  name,  and  shed  a  lustre  on 
his  country. 

Example  Sd. 

TTie  Sentinient  of  Loyalty. 

Loyalty,  in  its  primitive  signification,  implies  fidelity  to  a  king.  Hence, 
8  loyal  subject  is  one  who  promotes  as  fur  as  possible  the  welfare  of  the 
kijigdom,  who  assists  in  the  maintenance  of  the  laws,  and  in  times  of  danger 
is  ever  ready  to  defend  the  life  and  honor  of  his  sovereign,  and  to  sacrinco 
himself  for  the  good  of  his  country. 

This  sentiment  is  natural  to  the  human  race.  If  we  analyze  our  various 
feelings  and  emotions,  wo  shall  f^nd  tbat  the  Bontiment  of  lore  is  one  o< 


AIDS    TO     ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  335 

the  most  powerful  passions  which  nature  has  implanted  in  the  breast  of 
man  ;  it  is  the  most  powerful,  because,  when  excited  and  kindled,  it  burns 
with  an  ardor  almost  unquenchable ;  it  warms  and  spurs  the  whole  man  on 
ward  towards  the  accomplishment  of  its  object ;  impetuous  and  irresistible, 
it  overcomes  all  obstacles  which  rise  before  it. 

The  sentiment  of  Loyalty  is  one  of  the  manifestations  of  this  love  ;  spring- 
ing from  that  noble  source,  it  flows  onward  till  it  meets  the  waters  of  other 
streams,  which  it  deepens  and  purifies. 

Since  nature  has  given  to  man  this  sentiment  of  loyalty,  it  will  always 
find  suitable  objects  on  which  to  bestow  itself.  Man  was  made  for  love ; 
he  must  have  somethmg  to  honor,  respect,  and  admire  ;  something  usually 
higher  and  nobler  than  himself ;  consequently,  in  despotic  countries,  honor 
and  love  are  paid  by  a  loyal  people  to  their  sovereign,  who,  being  of  a 
higher  station,  of  a  more  venerated  name,  or  of  nobler  descent  than  them- 
selves, is  entitled  to  this  respect. 

In  our  own  country,  we  venerate  the  wisdom  and  prudence  of  our  ances- 
tors, who,  in  framing  the  articles  of  our  constitution,  provided  for  the  good  ^ 
of  succeeding  generations ;  and,  at  the  present  day,  when  we  see  a  citizen 
devoting  himself  to  the  service  of  his  country  with  that  patriotic  spirit 
which  characterized  our  fathers,  our  affections  are  aroused,  our  lips  send 
forth  his  praise,  we  hail  him  as  ^he  defender  of  the  Constitution,  and  the 
whole  nation  rises  up  to  do  him  homage. 

In  England,  recently,  that  loyalty,  which  for  two  preceding  reigns  had 
been  slumbering,  burst  forth  with  redoubled  vigor  upon  the  accession  of  a 
female  sovereign  to  the  throne. 

At  the  beginning  of  a  new  reign,  the  loyalty  of  a  nation  is  always  openly 
and  warmly  exhibited.  But  on  that  occasion,  there  was  something  in  the 
fact,  that  their  future  sovereign  was  a  youthful  and  accomplished  queen, 
which  excited  in  an  unusual  degree  the  hopes  and  sympathies  of  the  nation. 
They  hailed  her  accession  as  emblematical  of  peace  and  prosperity. 

In  the  feudal  times,  in  the  times  of  cliivalry  and  the  Crusades,  the 
knights  were  distinguished  for  their  loyalty  to  the  ladies  of  the  court.  In 
those  days,  the  fame  and  beauty  of  the  lady  inspired  her  champion  with 
courage  and  strength,  and  many  a  battle  has  been  fought  and  many  a  vie 
ton^  won,  under  this  spirit-stirring  influence  of  loyalty. 

Those  were  brilliant  days  for  Europe,  when  chivalry  stood  forth  in  its 
might,  and  first  gave  birth  to  loyalty,  —  loyalty,  which  taught  devotion  and 
reverence  to  those  weak,  fair  beings,  who  but  in  beauty  and  gentleness 
have  no  defence.  "  It  raised  love  above  the  passions  of  the  brute,  and  by 
dignifying  woman,  made  woman  worthy  of  love.  It  gave  purity  to  enthu 
siasm,  crushed  barbarous  selfishness,  taught  the  heart  to  exf)and  like  a 
flower  to  the  sunshine,  beautified  glory  with  generosity,  and  smoothed  even 
the  rugged  brow  of  war."  But  how  have  we  degenerated?  "The  age  of 
chivalry  is  gone  ;  never,  never  more  shall  we  behold  that  generous  loyalty 
to  rank  and  sex,  that  proud  submission,  that  dignified  odedience,  that  sub 
•  ordination  of  the  heart,  which  kept  alive,  even  in  servitude  itself,  the  spirit 
of  an  exalted  freedom  !  " 

But  though  the  sentiment  of  loyalty  has  greatly  degenerated,  it  is  not 
wholly  extinct ;  it  is  now  occasionally  expressed,  but  its  flame  is  faint  and 
flickering  ;  should  it  ever  expire,  it  will  go  hand  in  hand  with  patriotism, 
and  will  expire  with  that  faith  which  gave  it  life. 

To  conceive  truly  what  we  should  then  lose,  we  need  only  reflect,  that 
loyalty  is  the  bond  of  society  and  friendship,  it  unites  all  the  best  affections 
of  the  heart  in  one  common  cause,  it  holds  a  sacred  place  not  to  be  invatled 
with  impunity,  il  is  respected  and  honored  by  the  old,  and  the  stories  of  it» 
valcrt"  delight  the  young,  and 

"  Though  well  held,  to  fools  doth  make 
Our  faith  mere  foliy,  yet  he  that  can  endura 
To  follow  with  allegiance  a  fallen  lord, 
Dotb  conoucr  him,  that  did  his  master  con'«acr." 


1^5  IlIDS    to     ENGLISH    COMPOSITIOM. 

XC. 

COLLEGE  POEM. 

Example, 

The  Pleasures  and  Pains  of  the  Student 

Wlien  envious  time,  with  unrelenting  hand, 
Dissolves  the  union  of  some  little  band, 
A  band  connected  by  those  hallowed  ties, 
That  from  the  birth  of  lettered  friendship  rise, 
Each  lingering  soul,  before  the  parting  sigh. 
One  moment  waits,  to  view  the  years  gone  by  j 
Memory  still  loves  to  hover  o'er  the  place. 
And  all  our  pleasures  and  our  pains  retrace. 

The  Student  is  the  subject  of  my  song. 
Few  are  his  pleasures,  —  yet  those  few  are  strong. 
Not  the  gay,  transient  moment  of  delight. 
Not  hurried  transports  felt  but  in  their  flight. 
Unlike  all  else,  the  Student's  joys  endure, 
Intense,  expansive,  energetic,  pure ; 
Whether  o  er  classic  plains  he  loves  to  rove, 
'Midst  Attic  bowers,  or  through  the  Mantuan  groTe,— 
Whether,  ^vith  scientific  eye,  to  trace 
The  various  modes  of  number,  time,  and  space,  — 
Whether  on  wings  of  heavenly  truth  to  rise, 
And  penetrate  the  secrets  of  the  skies, 
Or  downwards  tending,  with  an  humble  eye, 
Through  Nature's  laws  explore  a  Deity, 
His  are  the  joys  no  stranger  breast  can  ifecl. 
No  wit  define,  no  utterance  reveal. 

Nor  yet,  alas !  unmixed  the  jovs  we  Iwast, 
Our  pleasures  still  proportioned  laboi-s  cost 
An  anxious  tear  oft  fills  the  Student's  eye. 
And  his  brca«t  heaves  with  many  a  struggling  sigh. 
His  is  the  task,  the  long,  long  task,  t'  explore 
Of  every  age  the  lumber  and  the  lore. 
Need  I  describe  his  struggles  and  his  strife, 
The  thousand  minor  miseries  of  his  life, 
How  Application,  never-tiring  maid, 
Oft  mourns  an  aching,  oft  a  dizzv  head  ? 
How  the  hard  toil  but  slowly  makes  its  way, 
One  wonl  explained,  the  labor  of  a  day, — 
Here  forced  to  explore  some  labyrinth  without  end 
And  tborc  some  paradox  to  cxjmprehend  ? 
Here  ten  hard  words  fraught  with  some  meaning  smsil, 
And  there  ten  folios  fraught  with  none  at  all. 
Or  view  him  meeting  out  with  points  and  lines 


AIDS    TO    ENftLISII    COxMPOSlTlON.  337 

Where  forms  of  spheres  "  being  given  "  on  a  plaae, 

He  must  transform  and  bend  within  his  brain. 

Or  as  an  autlior,  lost  in  gloom  profound, 

When  some  bright  thought  demands  a  period  round 

Pondering  and  polishing ;  ah,  what  avail 

The  room  oft  paced,  the  anguish-bitten  nail  1 

For  see,  produced  'mid  many  a  laboring  groan, 

A  sentence  much  like  an  inverted  cone. 

Or  should  he  try  his  talent  at  a  rhyme, 

That  waste  of  patience  and  that  waste  of  time, 

Perchance,  like  me,  he  flounders  out  one  line, 

Begins  the  next,  —  there  stops . 

Enough,  no  more  unveil  the  cloister's  grief, 
Disclose  those  sources  whence  it  finds  relief. 
Say  how  the  Student,  pausing  from  his  toil. 
Forgets  his  pain  'mid  recreation's  smile. 
Have  you  not  seen, — forgive  the  ignoble  theme,  — 
The  winged  tenants  of  some  haunted  stream 
Feed  eager,  busy,  by  its  pebbly  side, 
Then  wanton  in  the  cool,  luxuriant  tide  ? 
So  the  wise  student  ends  his  busy  day. 
Unbends  his  mind,  and  throws  his  cares  away. 
To  books  where  science  reigns,  and  toil  severe, 
Succeeds  the  alluring  tale,  or  drama  dear ; 
Or  haply  in  that  hour  his  taste  might  choose 
The  easy  warbUngs  of  the  modem  muse. 
Let  me  but  paint  him  void  of  every  care. 
Flung  in  free  attitude  across  his  chair. 
From  page  to  page  his  rapid  eye  along 
Glances  and  revels  through  the  magic  song  ; 
Alternate  swells  his  breast  with  hope  and  fear, 
Now  bursts  the  unconscious  laugh,  now  falls  the  pitying  tcair 
Yet  more ;  though  lonely  joys  the  bosom  warm, 
Participation  heightens  every  charm  ', 
And  should  the  happy  student  chance  to  know 
The  warmth  of  friendship,  or  some  kindlier  glow, 
"What  wonder  should  he  swiftly  run  to  share 
Some  favorite  author  with  some  favorite  fair ! 
There,  as  he  cites  those  treasures  of  the  page 
That  raise  her  fancy,  or  her  heart  engage. 
And  listens  while  her  frequent,  keen  remark 
Discerns  the  brilliant,  or  illumes  the  dark. 
And  doubting  much,  scarce  knows  which  most  to  admire 
The  critic's  judgment,  or  the  writer's  fire, 
And  reading  often  glances  at  that  face. 
Where  gently  beam  intelligence  and  grace ; 
And  sees  each  passion  in  its  turn  prevail. 
Her  looks  the  very  echo  of  the  tale ; 
Sees  the  descending  tear,  the  swelling  breast, 
When  vice  exults,  or  virtue  is  distressed  5 
Or,  when  the  plot  assumes  an  aspect  new. 
And  virtue  shares  her  retribution  dtie. 
Ho  sees  the  grateful  smile,  th'  uplifted  eye, 
^9 


838  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

Thread,  needle,  kerchief,  dropt  in  ecstasy, — 
,  Say,  can  one  social  pleasure  equal  this  ** 

Yet  still  even  here  imperfect  is  the  bliss. 
For  ah !  how  oft  must  awkward  learning  yieW 
To  graceful  dulness  the  unequal  field 
Of  gallantry  ?     What  lady  can  endure 
The  shrug  scholastic,  or  ihe  bow  demure  ? 
Can  the  poor  student  hope  that  heart  to  gain 
Which  melts  before  the  flutter  of  a  cane  1 
Or,  of  two  characters,  which  shall  surpass, 
Where  one  consults  his  books,  and  one  his  glaaa  * 
Ye  fair,  if  aught  these  censures  may  apply, 
'T  is  yours  to  effect  the  surest  remedy ; 
Ne'er  should  a  fop  the  sacred  bond  remove 
Between  the  Aonian  and  the  Paphian  grove. 
T  is  yours  to  strengthen,  polish,  and  secure 
The  lustre  of  the  mind's  rich  garniture ; 
This  is  the  robe  that  lends  you  heavenly  charms,* 
And  envy  of  its  keenest  sting  disarms, 
A  robe  whose  grace  and  richness  will  outvie 
The  woof  of  Ormus,  or  the  Tynan  dye. 

To  count  one  pleasure  more,  indulge  my  muse, 
'T  is  friendship's  self, — what  cynic  will  refuse  I 
O,  I  could  tell  how  oft  her  joys  we  've  shared, 
When  mutual  cares  those  mutual  joys  endeared. 
How  arm  in  arm  we  've  lingered  through  the  vale. 
Listening  to  many  a  time-beguiling  tale. 
How  oft,  relaxing  from  one  common  toil, 
We  've  found  repose  amid  one  common  smile. 
Yes,  1  could  tell,  but  O,  the  task  how  vain ! 
'T  would  but  increase  our  fast  approaching  pain  j 
The  nain  so  thrilling  to  a  student's  heart. 
Couched  in  that  talisman  of  woe,  we  part 


XCI. 

DISSERTATION. 


A  dissertation  is  a  formal  discourse  intended  to  illustralo 
a  subject,  and  the  term  is  properly  applied  to  performanceff 
of  an  argumentative  nature. 

Dissertations  are  principally  employed  on  disputed  points 
of  literature  and  science.* 


♦  See  Bontley's  «« Dissertation  upon  the  Epistles  of  Phalarit "  and  D# 
Pan  8  '  Dissertatiojis  on  the  Egyptians  and  Chinese." 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  339 


Example. 

On  the  Causes  which,  indqpendent  of  ilieir   Merii,  have  cotUrUnUad  to  ele 
rate  the  ancient  Classics." 

The  ancient  classics  are  elevated  to  a  rank  in  the  literature  of  the 
i^orld,  to  which  their  intrinsic  excellence  cannot  justify  their  claim.  Ad- 
mitting this  position,  which  their  most  strenuous  supporters  will  not  deny, 
but  unwilling  to  incur  the  imputation  which  a  declaimer  against  classical 
teaming  must  deservedly  hazard  among  its  admirers,  I  shall  attempt  to 
show  some  of  the  causes  that  have  united  to  produce  this  elevation. 

The  standard  to  which  every  one  primarily  refers  what  he  examines, 
is  the  measure  of  his  own  power.  That  work  is  not  admired  which  he 
could  equal  or  surpass.  This  standard,  indeed,  is  soon  extended,  and 
similar  efforts  of  genius  of  other  ages  are  taken  into  the  comparison. 
The  barbarism  in  which  the  world  was  involved  at  the  revival  of  learning, 
made  the  classics  appear  to  its  restorers  in  an  unnaturally  strong  and 
dazzling  light.  Possessing  themselves  few  of  the  advantages  of  progres- 
sive improvement,  and  destitute  and  ignorant  of  the  resources  of  the  an- 
cient authors,  they  viewed  their  works  as  the  efforts  of  transcendent 
genius,  which  had  completely  penetrated  and  exhausted  the  mines  of  na- 
ture, —  which  none  could  ever  after  approach,  and  only  the  most  exalted 
minds  comprehend.  They  applied  themselves  to  the  examination  of  the 
treasures  they  had  discovered,  and  burst  forth  into  unrestrained  admira- 
tion of  authors  from  whom  they  had  learned  to  think  and  to  speak. 

All  who  have  since  justly  appreciated  the  labors  of  these  fathers  of 
modem  literature,  have  concurred  in  sentiments  of  gratitude  and  rever 
ence  to  their  instructors. 

For  a  great  part  of  the  time  since  the  revival  of  letters,  those  who  aimed 
at  the  reputation  of  scholars  have  been  obliged  to  establish  their  claim 
by  a  knowledge  of  the  classics.  The  possessor  of  this  knowledge  ob- 
tained respect,  and  continued  to  cultivate  it  from  the  pride  of  displaying 
learning  which  was  confined  to  a  few,  or  from  the  ambition  of  excelling 
in  what  constituted  his  chief  or  only  distinction.  This  was  necessarily 
tlie  case  when  little  other  than  classical  learning  existed ;  and  it  long  con- 
tinued, like  the  respect  for  hereditary  succession,  from  the  habit  of  pay- 
ing honor  to  what  our  predecessors  deemed  honorable.  While  prejudices 
were  thus  strong  in  favor  of  the  classics,  few  ventured  to  appear  without 
their  support,  and  most  that  was  written  tended  to  preserve  and  strengthen 
their  ascendancy.  Regarded  as  having  assisted  the  first  literary  efforts 
of  the  majority  of  the  learned  men  of  modern  times,  and  being  generally, 
by  the  nature  of  their  subjects,  better  suited  than  most  other  books  to  the 
comprehension  of  the  young,  the  classic*  have  long  been  presented  to  the 
infant  mind  of  the  scholar,  when  in  its  most  susceptible  state.  They 
have  thus  occupied  the  most  powerful  prepossessions,  and  been  allowed 
to  form  and  constitute  the  standard  of  intellectual  beauty  and  excellence. 
They  have  intimately  insinuated  themselves  into  the  mind,  at  a  period 
when  impressions  received  are  most  lasting  and  most  forcible.*  Tliey 
have  been  connected  with  the  tenderest  and  most  pleasing  associations ; 
with  the  memory  of  the  sports  and  enjoyments  of  childhood,  and  the  more 
affecting  recollections  of  the  attention  of  instructors  and  kindness  of  pa- 
rents.    Tho«e  whom  the  yonth  was  first  taught  to  respect  have  been  men 


340  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

devoted  jo  these  studies,  and  employed  to  point  out  their  beauties,  and  to 
direct  the  yet  unformed  taste  to  their  perception  and  just  admiration. 

It  was  under  the  guidance  of  such  conductors,  that  the  young  imagina- 
tion  took  its  earliest  flights.  The  first  scenes  of  native  simplicity  and 
happiness  it  sketched,  were  amidst  Uie  classical  vales  of  Thessalv.  The 
first  jjopular  assemblies  it  regarded  with  interest,  were  those  of  Athena 
and  liome.  The  first  battles  it  pictured  to  itself  were  fought  under  the 
banners  of  a  Grecian  or  Roman  general.  Whenever,  in  after  life  and 
other  books,  pastoral  scenery,  or  popular  commotion,  or  the  tumult  of 
war,  presented  themselves,  they  brought  back  these  impressions,  were  re 
ferrcd  to  these  exemplars,  and  the  justice  and  elegance  of  description 
were  determined  by  the  comparison. 

To  this  may  be  added  the  undefined  sense  of  the  greatness  of  an  ob 
'ect  at  first  imperfectly  comprehended,  which  continues  to  display  beauties 
and  higher  excellences  the  more  closely  and  attentively  it  is  contem 

f)latcd.  This  quality,  common  to  every  work  of  merit,  must  be  particu 
arly  exhil)itcd  in  those,  which,  like  the  classics,  are  sufficiently  intelligible 
to  interest  minds  not  yet  adequate  to  their  complete  comprehension. 

I  insLst  not  on  the  respect  that  we  pay  to  antiquity ;  the  records  of  her 
wisdom,  though  for  ages  deemed  sacred,  have  long  since  been  exposed  to 
the  gaze  and  scrutiny  of  the  profane.  Her  voice  is  no  longer  listened  to 
as  speaking  the  language  of  inspiration.  The  charm  that  riveted  atten- 
tion is  dissolved.  Men  of  modem  times  affect  to  reverence  the  dictates 
of  reason  alone.  But  the  fact  has  not  always  been  thus ;  there  were  times 
when  the  classics  were  respected  merely  because  they  contained  the  lega- 
cies of  ancient  days. 

Inductive  philosophy  ha.?,  indeed,  taught  other  precepts  ;  but  to  those 
ignorant  of  these  precepts,  or  impatient  of  the  long  and  weary  path  which 
this  philosophy  pointed  out,  some  of  the  Greek  classics  offered  to  show 
a  pleasanter  and  far  shorter  way  to  univei*sal  science.  Having  once  em- 
braced the  theories  of  the  philosophers,  they  must  have  rejected  with  ridi- 
cule the  pretensions  of  other  books  to  competition  with  the  works  of  such 
as  genius  has  admitted  to  the  secret  councils  of  nature.  The  works  of 
the  Grecian  philosophers  constitute,  indeed,  but  a  small  portion  of  the 
classics.  But  how  often  are  we,  by  our  admiration  of  a  favorite  author, 
prepossessed  in  favor  of  the  whole  nation  to  which  he  belongs  ! 

But  philosophy  cannot  boast  herself  5  she  is  silent  and  contemplative 
and  must  borrow  language  to  communicate  her  inventions.  Philosoplii 
eal  science  forms  the  solid  distinction  of  modem  times.  Ambitious  men 
nmv  use  science  as  an  instmmcnt,  but  will  not  pursue  it  as  an  end.  It 
is  the  ostentJ\tious  and  imposing  knowledge  of  tlie  language,  and  of  the 
arts  which  orators  and  poets  have  employed  to  sway  the  judgment  by 
rousing  the  passions,  and  will  be  sought  after  by  these  men ;  and  this 
knowledge  tliey  will  find  in  the  classical  relics  of  the  days  of  imagination 
nnd  enthusiasm. 

Bju  if  these  relics  contain  more  of  the  fictions  of  a  poetical  age,  of  the 
plavful  wanderings  of  the  youth  of  human  society,  than  of  sober  reason 
and  thoughtful  experience,  why  do  they  still  delight  tlie  wisest  of  our 
thinking  race  ? 

Our  attention,  on  opening  a  volume  of  the  classics,  is  immediately  wob 
bv  the  nianly  and  striking  manner  in  which  every  thing  is  expressed 
Thoughts  arc  pursued  with  ease  as  they  present  themselves  in  language  full, 
forcible,  and  distinct.    We  ascribe  wholly  to  intrinsic  merit  an  excellence 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  841 

owing,  in  a  degree,  to  external  circumstances.  In  a  language  that  haa 
been  so  many  centuries  -written  only,  the  ideas  connected  with  each  word 
have  become  long  since  determinately  fixed.  The  attention  is  not  divert- 
ed by  the  numerous  indistinct  images  with  which  every  word  of  a  living 
language  is  necessarily  associated ;  nor  is  the  mind  liable  to  be  misled  by 
allusions  to  subjects  foreign  to  the  one  in  view.  The  application  of  each 
word  appears  strikingly  appropriate  and  peculiar. 

In  a  living  language  it  cannot  be  thus.  Where  philosophy  must  bor- 
row the  garb  of  ordinary  life ;  when  she  must  converse  in  the  same  dia» 
lect  that  is  employed  in  the  usual  transactions  <  f  business,  and  which 
must  present  many  images  that  are  low  and  disgusting,  and  more  that  are 
common,  though  she  may  please  by  her  familiarity,  she  cannot  but  lose 
the  charm  of  novelty,  and  the  dignity  of  elevation.  Many  of  the  thoughts 
that  seem  admirable  in  the  original  of  the  ancient  classics,  cease  to  strike 
in  a  modern  translation.  They  lose  their  simple  energy  of  expression, 
their  innocence  and  delicacy  of  sentiment,  and  are  debased  by  associa- 
tions with  the  gi'ossness  of  sensible,  or  the  meanness  of  trivial  objects. 
Hence  it  is,  that  though  we  may  infuse  into  a  translation  from  the  classics 
all  the  sense,  we  cannot  the  grace  and  spirit  of  the  original. 

These  are  some  of  the  causes  to  which  the  ancient  classics  owe  their 
elevation.  They  are  esteemed  as  having  assisted  the  first  efforts  of  re- 
viving literature,  and  contributed  to  the  highest  distinction  of  modem 
scholars.  They  were  venerated  as  the  bequest  of  antiquity ;  they  are 
still  consecrated  by  their  connexion  with  the  pure  enjoyments  and  tender 
affections  of  childhood.  They  are  dignified  by  a  lofty  freedom  from  the 
imperfections  of  a  fluctuating  language,  and  from  the  analogies  and  asso- 
ciations that  combine  obscurity  and  vulgar  coarseness  in  a  language 
which  still  continues  to  be  spoken. 


XCII. 

DISQUISITION. 

A  Disquisition  is  a  formal  or  systematic  inquiry  into  any 
subject  by  arguments,  or  discussion  of  the  facts  and  circum- 
stances that  may  elucidate  truth. 

A  disquisition  differs  from  a  dissertation  in  its  form  and  ex- 
tent. A  dissertation  may  be  more  diffuse  in  its  character, 
and  consequently  is  generally  protracted  to  a  greater  length. 
A  disquisition  should  be  characterized  by  its  unity.  Nothing 
should  be  introduced  but  what  is  strictly  to  the  point ;  wnile 
in  a  dissertation  any  collateral  subjects  may  be  introduced 
which  have  a  bearing  upon  the  point  to  be  proved,  or  the 
subject  to  be  elucidated. 
29* 


842  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Disquisitions  may  be  ethical,  political,  scientific,  or  literary. 
ac<»rding  to  the  nature  of  their  subjects. 

AN  ETHICAL   DISQUISITION. 

Example. 
The  strict  Application  of  Moral  Rules  to  tJie  Policy  of  States. 

We  all  hold  to  the  strict  confinement  of  individuals  by  the  rules  of 
morality ;  nations  are  but  assemblages  of  individuals ;  why,  then,  should 
states  be  exempt  from  these  rules  ? 

Our  rules  of  morality  are  laid  down  in  the  New  Testament,  as  given 
by  Jesus  Christ ;  he  appears  to  have  made  no  distinction  between  man 
considered  as  a  single  being,  or  regarded  collectively,  as  existing  in  states. 
The  spirit,  if  not  the  letter,  of  his  sayings,  is  in  favor  of  the  universal 
application  of  these  principles ;  and  it  becomes  all,  who  dispute  this  po- 
sition, to  take  upon  themselves  the  onus  probandi.  Let  us  spend  a  few 
moments  in  the  survey  of  their  objections. 

They  say,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  magnitude  of  the  interest  at  stake 
justifies  them  in  resoiting  to  chicanery,  the  rupture  of  treaties,  tlie  open- 
ing of  ambassadors'  letters,  and  many  other  honorable  exploits.  This 
interest  is  the  welfare  of  the  community  in  worldly  matters.  Can  it  be 
obtained  by  chicanery  ?  No !  in  the  language  of  a  most  eloquent  writer, 
"  personal  and  national  morality,  ever  one  and  the  same,  dictate  the  same 
measures  under  the  same  circumstances." 

Moreover,  the  opponents  say,  that  expediency  requires  the  deception 
commonly  practised  in  national  affairs,  and  laugh  at  the  idea  of  any  oth- 
er system.  "  Let  those  laugh  that  win !  "  but  remember  that  derision  is 
no  proof  of  the  validity  of  one  position,  or  the  fallacy  of  another.  I^ng 
enough  has  this  world  grovelled  beneath  pretended  cxj>cdicncy,  as  if  shor^ 
sighted  man  could  better  frame  regulations  for  tlie  future,  than  he  vho 
holds  etemitv  within  his  gi-asp ;  let  us,  if  no  others  will,  rise  as  a  nation 
and  shake  oA*  the  chain ;  let  us  stand  forsvard  in  the  pursuit  of  our  best 
Interests,  for,  till  the  influence  of  Christianity  is  combined  w'th  that  of 
philosophy,  no  system  of  policy  can  be  perfect.  ^ 

The  Holy  Alliance  is  the  only  instance  in  which  this  union  has  been 
att('mi)lcd#aiul  although  the  title  has  been  branded  as  deceptive,  yet  it 
aflbrds  the  testimony  of  the  most  powerful  princes,  that  its  object  was 
just.  Having  thus  done  away  with  the  j)rincipal  objections  of  our  oppo 
ncnt«»,  wc  come  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  l)enefits  to  be  derived  trcm 
a  strict  ai)plication  of  these  rules ;  time  will  only  allow  us  to  touch  upon 
some  of  tlic  most  important,  and  point  out  their  influence  upon  our  con 
diiion. 

The  laws  of  the  land  first  claim  our  attention ;  not,  indeed,  as  they 
now  are,  based  uj>on  the  narrow  views  of  man,  but  fixed  on  the  broad 
And  stirc  foundatii)n  of  morality.  The  Saviour  has  nowhere  freed  nmn 
from  his  obligation  to  attend  to  the  interests  of  his  fellow-man;  on  the 
rontrary,  his  especial  (>onimand  was,  "  Do  unto  others  as  ye  would  that 
men  should  do  unto  you."  If  tiiis  precept  were  observed  in  all  tlie  laws, 
»re  should  no  longer  sec  kings  oppressing  their  subjects,  or  men  of  ono 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  343 

o]»mion  rising  to  crush  those  of  an  opposite,  in  defiance  of  every  princi 
pie  implanted  in  the  human  breast. 

There  is  a  spirit  abroad  in  the  land,  which  would  fain  do  right,  but 
overdoes  in  its  eagerness  ;  men  actuated  by  it  do  not  wait  to  see  if  their 
fellow-men  fully  comprehend  them,  or  their  object.  This  is  not  the  spirit 
of  true  morahty,  which  makes  its  path  as  clear  as  the  perfect  day,  and 
leads  the  good  man  to  consider  not  merely  his  own  benefit,  but  also  to 
relieve,  as  far  as  possible,  the  situation  of  the  poorer  classes ;  he  would 
secure  their  earthly  happiness  by  the  only  sure  means,  firm  and  salutaiy 
laws.  In  these  times  it  becomes  every  man  to  consider,  that  his  influence 
ts  something ;  when  the  wagoner  applied  his  shoulder  to  the  wheel,  the 
cart  was  dragged  from  the  miry  slough.  Particularly  in  this  country, 
where  the  poorest  has  an  equal  interest  with  the  most  wealthy,  is  it  neces- 
sary for  all  to  cooperate  for  the  support  of  right  views  in  regard  to  the 
power  of  laws  over  the  governed.  We  have  thus  briefly  adverted  to  the 
policy  to  be  exerted  by  the  state  towards  its  own  subjects ;  there  is  yet 
another  point  of  view,  the  connexion  existing  between  different  govern 
ments. 

In  the  first  place,  nations  may  be  regarded  as  having  the  same  feelings 
towards  one  another  with  individuals.  The  chicanery  and  fraud,  prac- 
tised by  states  towards  each  other,  has  already  been  adverted  to ;  but 
after  a  consideration  of  the  relation  of  state  and  subject,  the  matter  is 
again  forced  upon  our  attention.  Not  only  are  these  practices  opposed 
to  all  morality,  but  they  would  not  be  tolerated  between  individuals: 
and  the  man  whose  suspicion  induced  him  to  open  letters,  or  break 
the  bonds  he  had  voluntarily  given  to  another,  would  be  ejected  from  the 
lowest  society. 

In  the  whole  system  of  international  morality,  there  is  perhaps  nothing 
so  unsettled  as  the  rules  for  the  construction  of  treaties,  and  yet  the  way 
seems  clear.  A  treaty  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  a  promise  between 
wo  or  more  nations,  commonly  for  mutual  benefit. 

Mankind  in  a  body  have  no  higher  interests  than  they  have  as  individ- 
uals ;  each  member  of  society  is  anxious  only  for  certain  natural  rights, 
and  to  insure  these  privileges  to  posterity ;  these,  we  have  shown,  can  best 
be  secured  by  a  strict  conformity  to  moral  rules.  It  is  no  argument 
against  the  introduction  of  this  policy  to  say,  it  would  not  succeed ;  on 
the  contrary,  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  perfect  success  would  crown 
the  effort ;  the  old  reasons  are  vain  and  futile ;  let  something  new  be 
tried ;  not  a  diplomatic,  but  a  bold  daring,  based  on  the  principles  of  di- 
vine justice.  When  this  system  of  things  is  adopted,  wars  will  be  abol- 
ished ;  in  the  beautiful  language  of  the  prophet,  "  Men  will  turn  their 
swords  into  ploughshares  and  their  spears  into  pruning-hooks,  and  learn 
war  no  more."  These  principles,  properly  earned  out,  would  check  the 
boundless  ambition  of  mankind,  and  remove  those  petty  jealousies  which 
commonly  give  rise  to  the  wanton  destruction  of  God's  creation ;  the 
poet  could  no  longer  exclaim  with  truth,  "  Devil  with  devil  damned  fiiTii 
concord  holds ;  men  only  disagree  of  creatures  rational." 

The  common  origin  of  war  is  from  the  pretended  or  real  infringement  of 
a  treaty.  How  can  this  be  remedied  ?  First,  by  being  careful  before  a 
treaty  is  formed.  Second,  by  a  firm  yet  respectful  statement  of  the  case 
when  one  has  been  broken.  A  man  of  sound  common  sense,  guided  by 
a  Christian  spirit,  is  far  more  likely  to  frame  treaties  that  will  endure, 
iliau  the  wily  diplomatist,  whose  aim  is  merely  to  make  as  much  money 


344  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

as  lie  Jan  for  his  country,  regardless  of  the  injuries  he  may  commit 
wSuih  i.  man  acts  for  a  nation  as  he  does  for  liimsclf ;  he  cairies  into  prac^ 
ticc  the  precept,  "  Love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself."  Many  writers  have 
touched  upon  war,  and  much  has  been  said,  both  for  and  against  it ; 
those  of  the  present  day  are,  however,  generally  opposed ;  and  the  Con- 
gress of  Nations,  which,  but  a  few  years  since,  was  ridiculed  as  an  eman- 
ation from  the  brains  of  hot-headed  fanatics,  is  ah-eady  occupying  the 
attention  of  the  wisest  legislators  tlu-oughout  the  world. 

What  a  blissful  state  of  things,  when  all  nations  shall  be  at  peace ! 
when  we  shall  see  each  pursuing  its  own  interest  with  benefit  to  the  rest ! 
This  shall  be  the  consequence,  and  not  the  cause  of  the  universal  spread 
of  Christianity.  The  situation  of  our  own  country  is  particularly  favor- 
able for  the  application  of  its  rules.  It  may,  indeed,  be  urged,  that  they 
would  not  yet  be  appreciated ;  let  us  then  hasten  the  period,  and  not  rest 
in  the  work  of  well-doing,  till  all  tribes  and  nations  shall  be  brought  to 
know  their  God,  and  his  law.  Onward  1  should  then  be  the  cry  of  every 
moral  man ;  our  time  of  action  here  is  but  short  at  the  most,  yet  much 
may  be  done,  and  is  there  one,  who,  with  an  immortal's  happiness  within 
his  grasp,  is  too  indolent  to  put  forth  his  hand  for  it  ?  No  !  that  man  is 
unworthy  the  name  of  republican,  whose  sole  aim  in  self,  who  regards 
not  his  country,  and  his  fellow-men  throughout  the  world. 

Let  us,  then,  as  a  nation,  stand  forward  for  the  introduction  of  moral 
precepts  to  direct  our  relations  with  foreign  countries.  The  experiment 
IS  new,  but  does  not  the  interest  at  stake  warrant  us  in  the  risk,  if  there 
can  be  danger,  in  preferring  the  dictates  of  conscience  and  our  God,  tc 
the  precepts  of  short-sighted  man. 


xcni. 

A  DISCUSSION. 

A  Discussion  is  the  treating  of  a  subject  by  argument,  to 
clear  it  of  diiricultics,  and  (o  separate  truth  from  falsehood. 
It  is  generally  carried  on  between  two  or  more  persons,  who 
take  contrary  sides,  and  defend  them  by  arguments  and  illus- 
trations. 

Disoassions  arc  of  several  kinds,  such  as  philosoi)hical,  literary,  politi- 
cal, or  moral,  according  to  the  subjects  of  which  they  treat ;  or  colloquial 
and  deliberative,  according  to  the  style  in  which  they  are  written,  or  the 
occasion  for  which  they  are  prcj^arcd. 

Discussions  scne  for  amusement,  rather  than  for  any  solid  purpose ; 
the  cause  of  truth  seldom  derives  any  immediate  benefit  from  them,  al- 
though the  minds  of  men  may  become  invigorated  by  a  collision  of  sen* 
timont. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  S46 


PHILOSOPHICAL    BISCUSSION. 

Example. 

1»AKT    I. 

On  the  Expediency  of  making  Authorship  a  Profe 

In  modern  civilized  communities,  a  certain  opinion  or  maxim  is  often 
prevalent,  which,  would  we  strip  it  of  the  shroud  of  conceit  and  the  glit- 
ter of  cant,  would  appear  unwarrantable  prejudice.  Of  this  description 
is  the  objection  so  constantly  urged  against  the  profession  of  the  author  • 
a  man  whom  few  will  call  their  brother,  the  laughing-stock  of  the  mer* 
chant's  clerk,  and  a  laborer  poorly  paid  in  the  world's  coin.  The  broker 
seldom  meets  him  on  the  exchange ;  the  usurer  never  chaffers  with  him 
on  the  mart ;  the  old  man  clinks  his  bags  and  shrugs  his  shoulders  at  his 

Erospects ;  the  schoolmaster  takes  to  trade,  and  presently  rolls  by  him  in 
is  coach,  and,  perhaps,  worst  of  all,  the  bright  eye  is  turned  away,  and 
the  fair  hand  withheld  by  one  who  can  never  be  the  wife  of  an  au- 
thor !  This  prejudice  which  I  describe,  was  once  common  throughout  the 
old  world ;  now  it  is  particularly  confined  to  America.  Still  everywhere 
the  man  whose  pen  is  to  be  his  support  is  thought  a  visionary,  or  an  idler- 
The  author's  garret  has  long  since  passed  into  a  by-word,  and  the  gaping 
elbow  has  become  the  escutcheon  of  liis  family.  His  poverty  is  a  kind 
of  general  butt,  and  his  sensitiveness  a  fair  subject  of  caricature.  I  am 
aware,  that  I  shall  not  speak  agreeably  to  the  judgment  of  most  who 
hear  me ;  let  us,  however,  examine  fairly  some  of  the  errors  which  have 
led  people  to  think  authorship  unprofitable  and  inexpedient. 

There  are  many  persons,  who,  having  neither  the  vigor  nor  refinement 
of  mind  to  distinguish  between  what  is  material  and  intellectaal,  would 
measure  poetry  by  the  yard,  or  fill  a  library  by  the  bushel !  To  such, 
whatever  yields  the  greatest  amount  of  tangible,  improvable  product  is 
the  best  producer ;  unless  mind  acts  openly,  as  a  machine,  they  suppose 
it  to  be  dormant.  Let  such  persons  first  comprehend  the  purpose  of  the 
author  whom  they  censure ;  let  them  learn,  that  there  possibly  may  be 
higher  motives  of  action  than  gold  or  silver,  —  loftier  contemplations 
than  those  of  the  counting-house  or  factory !  And,  although  this  is  ' 
working-day  world,  and  man  must  labor  for  hire,  let  them  thank  God, 
that  there  are  men,  who  find  times  of  communion  with  better  thoughts ; 
and,  but  for  whose  speculations,  and  grasps  at  the  infinite,  these  short- 
sighted cavillers  would  be  as  lifeless  as  the  clods  on  which  they  tread ! 
Coleridge  says,  with  the  enthusiasm  of  a  genius,  —  "I  expect  neither  profit 
ttor  general  fame  by  my  writings,  and  I  consider  myself  as  having  been 
amply  repaid  without  either.  Poetry  has  been  to  me  its  own  exceeding 
great  reward ;  it  has  soothed  my  afilictions  ;  it  has  multiplied  and  refined 
my  enjoyments  ;  it  has  endeared  solitude,  and  it  has  given  me  the  habit 
of  wisliing  to  discover  the  good  and  the  beautiful  in  all  that  meets  and  sur- 
rounds me."  Urge  such  a  man,  if  you  can,  to  convert  his  "  Chris tabel " 
into  an  interest-table,  and  limit  his  peace  of  mind  by  the  rise  and  fall  of 
stocks  1 


^46  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


We  of  Aiaerica  complain,  that  we  have  no  established  literata-e ;  and 
until  more  among  us  are  willing  to  devote  themselves  to  the  cause  of  lit 
erature,  we  must  be  content  to  reflect  the  literary  splendor  of  England 
Some  of  the  brightest  creations,  indeed,  of  modern  days,  some  of  thi 
fairest  creatures  of  love,  and  poetry,  and  romance,  belong  to  America 
but  they  are  not  very  numerous,  and,  ten  to  one,  our  poet  or  novelist,  like 
the  poor  author's  garment,  which  was,  "  a  cap  by  night,  a  stocking  all  tho 
day}''  pours  forth  his  strain  after  completing  the  routine  of  a  pleader  al 
the  bar,  a  bank  officer,  or  political  editor !  Among  the  respectable  and 
vitally  important  cares  of  professional  life,  literature  has  a  poor  chancfl 
of  encouragement ;  the  philosopher's  speculations,  or  the  poet's  theory, 
having  nothing  to  do  with  the  brief  or  the  dissecting  knife. 

"  This  is  the  language,"  says  the  objector,  "  of  romantic  folly ;  we  must 
live,  so  let  us  labor  for  the  readiest  recompense ;  intellect  will  not  sup- 
port life,  nor  secure  comfort."  Such  an  one,  be  it  obsen'cd,  mistakes  the 
ambition  of  the  literary  man.  Without  altogether  neglecting,  he  seeks 
Bomething  infinitely  better,  than  pecuniary  ease.  True,  Goldsmith  was 
needy,  and  Chatterton  was  driven  to  despair,  and  Otway  died  of  starva- 
tion. But  I  do  not  believe  that  either  would  have  foregone  one  sublime 
conception,  or  erased  from  his  writings  one  maxim  of  sound  morality,  to 
gain  the  wealth  of  the  princes  who  neglected  him  !  A  lying  tombstone 
tells  the  story  of  many  a  rich  patron  of  their  time,  —  their  memorials  are, 
•*  The  Deserted  Village,"  and  "  Venice  Preserved.*' 

I  am  not  advocating  that  sickly,  sentimental,  "  lovc-in-a-cottage  "  kind 
of  doctrine,  which  teaches,  that  mind  is  above  ordinary  necessities,  and 
that  the  wants  of  life  are  not  our  common  inheritance.  But  I  do  contend, 
that  the  time  is  coming,  and  that  it  should  speedily  come,  in  America, 
when  a  class  of  men  whose  wants  are  not  extravagant,  but  attainable  and 
reiined,  will  meet  with  support.  The  human  powers  are  unfairly  and 
unprofitably  employed,  if  turned  to  many  different  subjects;  and  this 
truth  should  be  better  known  in  America.  The  la^vyer  has  an  end  before 
him,  which  only  a  life  can  attain ;  so  has  the  physician,  the  clergyman, 
and  tho  author.     Unite  the  duties  of  either  two,  and  you  injure  both. 

Assuming,  what  wo  need  not  enlarge  upon,  the  irnportaace  of  a  high 
national  literature,  let  any  one  observe,  who  are  the  supporters  of  tliat 
which  adorns  England.  "  Not  those,  he  will  find,  who  united  two  or 
three  occupations !  Goldsmitli  was  a  professional  man  at  first,  but  his 
patients  were  few,  and  he  soon  became  what  he  was  l)orn  to  be,  an  au- 
thor !  Scott  never  figured  at  the  bju-,  and  Shakspcare  was  an  indifferent 
actor.  The  problem  may  be  easily  solved.  Some  minds  are  fitted  to 
investigate  by  help  of  the  data  of  others,  and  apply  to  God's  work 
their  conclusions,  and  others  ai-c  designed  more  exclusively  to  create ;  — 
a  distinction  rarclv  fiiiflicicntly  observed.  The  author  has  no  common 
work  to  perform ;  he  who  would  instruct  others,  must  untiringly  improve 
himself;  presenting  no  tlicorics  undigested,  and  familiar  with  tlie  wildest 
niMjcuhitions.  In  America,  and  everywhere  else,  we  want  a  race  of  think- 
ers ;  men  who  will  keep  aloof  from  the  eddy,  which  draws  in  politician 
and  merchant,  and  even  the  professional  man,  and  give  us  tho  results  of 
long  meditation.  The  mere  words  are  no  part  of  an  authors  labor;  they 
but  represent  long  previous  mental  action.  The  silence  of  the  study  is 
»o  mature  the  obscnations  of  the  world. 

rrofessional  men  generally  anneal  to  their  race  only  in  one  capacity; 
the  autlior,  b}  cnlai^gcd  views  of^  life,  and  illusti-ations  of  moral  tnith,  may 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION  347 

oe  a  gjeat  reformer.  Vice  has  long  enough  run  riot ;  let  the  autlior,  by 
moulding  passion  to  his  will,  make  it  of  service  to  his  race !  Is  he  a  phi- 
losopher, —  the  wonders  of  the  past,  and  the  mysteries  of  the  future,  are  hia 
province.  Is  he  a  poet,  —  the  freshness  of  nature,  the  fair  holiness  of  wo- 
man, and  the  purity  of  truth,  urge  him  to  a  life  of  thought  and  meilita- 
tion.  His  influence  spreads  light  about  him ;  his  pursuits  soften  his 
nature;  he  loves  more  heartily  what  is  lovely,  and  is  more  ready  to  pity 
what  is  frail.  The  world  says  truly,  he  is  poor ;  but  what  is  that  poverty 
vvhich  gives  wealth  to  one's  contemporaries,  and  bequeaths  an  inheritance 
to  posterity ! 


The  Expediency  of  making  Autfiorship  a  Profession 

Almost  universal  experience  proves  the  pecuniary  reward  of  literary 
labor  to  be  but  trifling.  In  the  throng  of  authors  and  nien  of  genius,  we 
find  only  here  and  there  a  solitary  instance  of  well-requited  endeavors  ; 
and  if,  at  the  present  day,  it  is  not  as  formerly  quite  true,  that  the  idea  of 
an  author  must  be  associated  with  a  narrow  lane  and  an  obscure  garret, 
it  is  not  because  his  reward  is  liberal,  or  in  any  degree  proportioned  to 
nis  merits.  Individual  instances  may,  indeed,  be  brought  up,  to  prove 
the  success  which  sometimes  attends  literary  pursuits ;  but  for  every  one 
that  could  be  cited,  who  had  basked  in  the  sunshine  of  prosperity,  and 
enjoyed  the  smiles  of  the  great  and  good  among  his  contemporaries,  we 
could  marshal  a  hundred  of  equal  power  and  genius,  depressed  by  pov- 
erty, and  treated  with  indifference  and  neglect;  whose  only  re^-ompense 
has  been  the  tribute  paid  to  their  memory  and  writings  in  after  limes. 

K  we  judge,  then,  from  the  remuneration  that  has  generally  attended 
the  labors  of  the  author,  we  are  justified  in  forming  presages  little  flatter- 
ing to  his  future  success.  And,  since  fortune  and  genius  are  seldom 
found  in  companionship,  what  must  be  the  consequence  of  making  au- 
thorship a  profession,  of  individuals  devoting  themsslves  to  the  cause  of 
truth  and  literature,  and  relying  on  the  gratitude  and  favor  of  the  public 
for  support  ?  It  is  useless  to  say  what  should  be  the  reward  of  the  author, 
and  to  speak  of  the  dignity  and  importance  of  the  part  which  he  sustains 
in  the  public  drama,  so  long  as  we  witness  what  is,  and  what  has  been  the 
requital  of  his  labors.  It  is  upon  facts  alone,  that  we  must  ground  our 
decision.  And  with  these  before  our  eyes,  must  we  not  fear  the  conse- 
quences to  literature,  if  its  existence  and  progress  depend  upon  the  exer- 
tions of  disappointed  and  ill-requited  genius  f  Consider  the  situation 
of  that  man,  who,  conscious  of  his  own  power,  resolves  to  devote  himself 
to  the  pursuit  of  letters,  to  become  an  author.  Supposing,  as  has  been 
the  case  with  thousands  who  have  preceded  him,  that  his  first  attempts  ai 
authorship  are  unsuccessful.  His  expectations  are  disappointed ;  the 
promise  of  fame  and  of  support  is  withered  and  blighted ;  the  world  looks 
upon  him  with  indifference ;  a  rival  regards  him  with  contempt ;  and  tht 
Bharp  and  cold  words  of  the  critic  ring  in  his  ear  the  knell  of  his  first  lit- 
erary offspring.  If  he  acquiesces  in  the  decision  of  his  judges,  it  is  onlj 
conftSRing  his  poor  claims  to  distinction.  If  not,  if  he  feels  that  tim« 
aJone  can  pronounce  the  true  decision  upon  his  writings,  there  is  yet  nc 


848  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

resort  for  him,  if  he  would  obtain  support  from  the  profession  which  lu 
has  chosen,  but  to  conform  his  writings  to  the  popular  taste.  Follow  thai 
man  to  his  closet,  and  witness  the  struggles  of  his  mind,  the  contest  be- 
tween inclination  and  interest.  The  one  prompts  him  to  follow  his  own 
genius ;  to  utter  the  dictates  of  his  own  feelings,  to  be  true  to  liis  own 
nature.  The  other  sternly  requu-es  him  to  bow  to  the  critics,  to  }'ield  to 
the  decision  of  the  public,  and  in  future  to  lower  his  aspirations.  It  is 
here  that  we  would  most  deprecate  the  evils  of  making  authorship  a  pro- 
fession ;  that  we  would  warn  the  young  aspiraut  for  literary  distinction, 
with  means  inadequate  to  his  support,  against  trusting  to  the  nncertain 
reward  of  his  exertions,  unless  he  is  willing  to  degrade  liis  genius,  and 
substitute  for  his  ovm  taste  and  inclinations,  those  of  the  capricious  and 
untliinking  multitude.  If,  instead  or  relying  upon  the  avails  of  author- 
ship, he  looks  to  another  profession  for  the  means  of  subsistence,  the 
thoughts  of  his  leisure  moments  may  be  given  to  the  world,  without  be 
ing  fashioned  and  moulded  by  the  opinions  of  other  men.  How  can  we 
expect  one  to  preserve  his  individuality  as  a  ^vritcr,  if  it  must  be  at  the 
expense  of  his  interests,  his  only  means  of  support.  He  that  does  right 
only  from  interested  motives,  cannot  rank  among  men  of  the  highest 
moral  excellence ;  nor  can  the  author,  who  writes  mainly  \v'ith  a  view 
to  his  own  support,  be  considered  the  most  vigilant  guardian  of  the 
cause  of  truth  and  letters. 

Nor  is  this  all.  When  an  author  has  resigned  his  right  of  self-guidance, 
and  has  taken  up  the  trade  of  \vriting  to  suit  the  public  taste ;  whose  desire 
is  to  write  what  may  be  popular ;  the  kindred  desire  soon  manifests  itself 
of  increasing,  as  fast  as  possible,  the  number  of  his  works.  Names  are 
not  wanting  to  prove,  that  this  has  often  been  the  case,  and  that,  too,  -vN-ith 
some  of  the  most  distinguished  authors.  We  witness  it  in  the  tliousand 
ephemeral  productions,  that  appear  but  to  attract  the  public  curiosity 
for  a  moment,  and  then  give  wav  to  works  as  worthless  and  short-lived 
as  themselves;  justifying  the  remark,  "that  authorship  immoderately 
employed  makes  the  head  waste  and  the  heart  empty,  even  were  there  no 
other  and  worse  consequences ;  and  that  a  person  who  sends  away 
through  the  pen  and  the  press  every  thought,  the  moment  it  occurs  to 
him,  will,  in  a  short  time,  have  sent  all  away,  and  will  become  a  mere 
journeyman  of  the  printing  otfice,  a  compositor !  "  The  cause  of  liter- 
ature is  the  cause  of  truth,  and  it  would  be  as  unnecessary  as  unwise 
to  trust  it  in  the  hands  of  those,  who  would  support  its  interest,  only 
BO  far  as  they  coincided  with  their  own. 

Wo  would  willingly  join  in  the  sentiment  of  Professor  Henry,  that 
"we  need  an  order  of  men  of  lofty  intellectual  endowment,  an  intel- 
lectual high  priesthood  standing  within  the  inner  veil  of  the  tem- 
ple of  truth,  reverently  watching  before  the  holy  of  holies  for  its  divine 
revelations,  and  giving  them  out  to  the  lower  ministers  at  the  altar;" 
but  if  this  priesthood  and  their  inferior  ministers  must  become  the  ser- 
vants and  dci>c>ulcnts  of  the  multitude,  whom  it  is  their  great  office  to 
jftiide  and  <lirect,  their  power  and  their  usefulness  are  at  an  end.  The 
shrine  of  truth  had  liettcr  be  intrusted  to  inferior  hands,  or  at  once  be 
desecrated  aiy!  overtlirown,  than  become  the  sanctuary  of  hypocist 
and  error. 


A.IDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  349 

Example. 

A    LITERARY   DISCUSSION. 

[One  side  only.] 
The  Merits  of  the  Histories  of  Hume  and  Lingard. 

False  opinions  in  morality,  or  mistaken  notions  in  philosophy,  are  not  so 
much  to  be  dreaded,  as  the  wilful  misrepresentations  of  the  historian. 
"NuUius  addictus  jurare  in  verba  magistri,"  should  be  the  motto  of  every 
honest  historian ;  be  his  party  in  the  right  or  wrong,  he  is  to  state  "  the 
truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth."  Yet  there  is  no  one 
who  has  greater  inducements  to  misrepresentations  than  the  historian. 
Party  feelmgs  will  lead  him,  not  only  to  extenuate  the  guilt  and  apologize 
for  the  measures  of  his  friends,  but  to  exaggerate  the  misconduct  of  his  ad 
versaries,  and  attribute  every  act  of  theirs  to  the  worst  of  motives.  But, 
should  he  have  the  good  fortune  to  be  of  no  poHtical  party,  yet  the  animosi- 
ties of  the  church  are  no  less  bitter  than  those  of  the  state,  and  theological 
enmities  are  far  more  difficult  to  compose,  since  each  religious  sect  believes, 
that  the  voice  of  its  own  partisans  is,  without  doubt,  the  voice  of  God. 

Almost  every  historian  has  been  influenced  in  one  or  the  other  of  these 
ways.  Hume  and  Gibbon,  professing  to  be  the  enemies  of  all  religion,  have 
too  often  made  their  "svi-itings  the  channel  of  their  infidelity,  and  thrown 
out  their  doubts  and  insinuations  on  every  opportunity.  Hume,  again,  was 
led  away  by  his  love  of  kings  ;  he  was  too  great  a  favorer  of  the  doctrines 
of  passive  obedience  and  the  divine  right  of  kings  ;  too  much  of  a  monarch- 
ist to  feel  any  of  that  ardor,  which  glowed  in  the  breasts  of  Hampden  and 
Sydney ;  he  consequently  views  with  apathy  every  attempt  of  the  people  to 
be  free,  and  considers  every  assertion  of  popular  rights  as  an  invasion  of 
royal  prerogative. 

"Neither  is  Dr.  Lingard  free  from  blame;  indeed,  we  fear  that  he  has 
wholly  forfeited  the  character  of  an  honest  historian;  he  has  erred  and 
greatly  erred,  from  his  zeal  for  his  particular  religion.  Educated  in  the 
faith  of  the  Romish  church,  he  must  naturally  feel  a  love  and  a  reverence 
for  her  institutions ;  a  priest  at  her  altar,  and,  as  we  hope,  sincerely  believ- 
ing in  the  doctrines  which  he  teaches,  he  must  feel  a  desire  to  defend  her 
from  the  attacks  and  calumnies  of  her  enemies.  But  his  zeal  has  carried 
him  too  far ;  he  seems  to  think  himself  pledged  to  support,  not  only  her 
doctrines,  but  the  means  she  has  used  to  extend  these  doctrines,  and  uphold 
her  temporal  as  well  as  her  spiritual  authority ;  every  thing  in  the  farthest 
decree  related  to  Holy  Mother  Church  is,  in  his  eyes,  sacred  and  inviolable, 
and  the  Popish  miracles,  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  and  the  Gun- 
powder Plot,  are  as  much  entitled  to  defence,  as  the  doctrines  of  transub- 
stantiation  and  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope. 

If  the  wish  to  do  away  the  prejudices  against  his  faith,  and  induce  men  to 
look  with  more  charity  upon  the  doctrines  of  his  sect,  furnished  any  motive 
to  Dr.  Lingard  for  writing  his  history,  he  has  entirely  failed  of  his  object  by 
grasping  at  too  much;  he  has  lost  the  whole,  he  has  weakened  his  side  and 
exposed  himself  to  the  ridicule  and  attacks  of  his  adversaries. 

If  he  had  merely  advocated  the  doctrines  of  his  church,  and  endeavored 
by  fair  argument  to  convince  men  of  their  truth,  although  we  cannot  allow 
an  historical  work  to  be  the  fit  place  for  theological  disciissions,  we  should 
not  have  so  much  reason  to  complain.  But  when  he  espotises  the  cause  of 
error,  and  virtually  by  apologizing  for,  if  not  ope  ily  by  vnidicating,  supports 
thoBe  measures,  which  every  man's  conscienco  must  tell  Jiim  aiimit  of  no 
30 


3.>0  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

cxcuae,  -  when  he  defends  the  chasacters  of  those  men  whom  the  voice  of 
all  ages  lince  their  own  has  condemned  to  infamy,  we  must  either  doubt  his 
sincerity  or  pity  his  understanding.  People  are  now  too  enlightened  to 
justify  those  means  which  centuries  ago  were  employed  to  compel  men's 
consciences.  It  is  idle  now  to  tell  a  man,  that  it  will  be  doing  God  service 
to  assassinate  his  neighbor,  because  he  will  not  hear  mass,  bow  to  the  host, 
and  acknowledge  ihe  Tope  as  his  spiritual  father. 

Dr.  Lingard  takes  every  opportunity  to  exalt  the  merits  of  those  of  his 
own  sect,  and  to  speak  in  terms  of  indifi'erence,  if  not  of  disparagement,  of 
every  distinguished  protestant.  While  Cardinal  Pole  is  the  subject  of  tlw 
highest  encomiums,  Archbishop  Cranmer  is  passed  as  a  man  of  but  littLi 
talents,  and  less  strength  of  character.  While  he  in  a  manner  defends  the 
cruelties  of  the  Marian  persecution,  and  vindicates  the  characters  of  Bonner 
and  Gardiner,  when  scarcely  the  fires  of  Smith  field  and  the  piles  of  Ridley 
and  Latimer,  Hooper  and  Cranmer  are  extinguished,  he  complains  of  the 
restraints,  the  fines,  and  imprisonments,  which,  under  Elizabeth,  were  im 
posed  on  the  Popish  recusants.  While  he  magnifies  every  indiscretion  of 
the  unfortunate  Anne  BoUeyn  into  a  crime,  and  would  load  her  charactet 
with  the  blackest  infamy,  he  extols  the  virtues  and  conceals  the  vices  of 
Mary  Stuart,  whose  only  virtue  was  her  weakness,  and  whose  only  apology 
for  crime  her  youth  and  beauty. 

Whatever  merit  there  may  be  in  Dr.  Lingard's  History,  either  of  original 
ity  and  deep  and  extensive  research,  which  he  claims,  o"r  of  beauty  of  style 
and  pleasing  narration,  which  have  been  allowed  him,  all  these,'however, 
will  by  no  means  make  up  for  the  manifest  partiality  towards  the  Catholics, 
and  the  constant  prejudice  against  the  Protestant  faith,  which  prevail 
through  the  whole  work.  It  will  never  be  a  popular  history;  it  may  be 
read  and  admired  at  St.  Omer's  and  Dovay,  it  may  be  found  in  the  library 
of  the  scholar,  but  never,  like  Hume,  in  every  parlor,  and  in  the  hands  of 
common  reiulers. 

When  the  historian  strays  from  the  truth,  his  work  becomes  a  mere  work 
*>(  fiction,  inheriting  all  the  dulness  of  narration,  without  acquiring  any  of 
the  liveliness  of  romance ;  it  can  neither  instruct  us  like  the  one.  nor  arnuse 
us  like  the  other.  Facts  misrepresented,  however  they  may  be  skilfully 
adapted  to  onr  particular  prejudices,  will  always  be  like  the  flattered  por 
trait,  which  may  gi-atify  our  vanity,  or  please  us  by  the  excellence  of  the 
coloring,  but  can  never  inspire  us  with  that  interest  that  truth  alone  can 
unpart. 


JExample. 

OF   A    DELIBETIATIVE    DISCUSSION. 

PART  I. 

**lAber'U  Principles  as  affecting  ihe  Strenffth  of  Gooet-nment.^ 

The  opinion  that  the  strength  of  government  consists  in  its  being  placed 
as  far  beyond  the  influence  of  popular  commotions  as  possible,  is  one  of  lon^ 
standing,  and,  when  rightly  understood,  is,  without  doubt,  perfectlv  correct 
But  I  do  very  much  doubt  the  correctness  of  that  exposition  of  it/or  rather, 
of  that  pcrvrr.iiott  of  it,  which  teaches  that  the  strength  of  a  government 
consists  in  crushing  the  energies  of  tlie  [ico^ilc,  and  continuing  them  in  a 
state  of  abject  mental  and  moral  degradation  and  darkness.  Nay,  I  cou- 
ceive  such  a  mode  of  proceeding  to  be  entirely  incompatible  with  th# 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COIIPOSITION.  o51 

Strength  of  government.  For.  let  v  suppose  the  existence  of  such  a  state 
of  things  as  has  just  been  alhided  t^.  Let  us  suppose  a  people  involved  ic 
a  barbarism  the  most  complete  and  gloomy  that  the  world  ever  knew  ;  and 
that  they  are  ruled  Avith  a  despotism,  compared  with  which  the  Ottoman 
despotism  of  the  present  day  is  veiy  liberty.  I  allow,  that  so  long  as  they 
can  be  continued  in  a  state  of  such  miserable  slavery  and  darkness,  so 
long  will  the  government  stand,  and  stand  firmly.  But  who  will  answer  for 
It,  that  the  light  shall  never  break  in  ?  Who"  will  vouch  that  they  shall 
never  rouse  from  this  moral  lethargy  ?  Who  is  there  that  dares  affirm  that 
this  Samson,  though  now  blinded,  and  shorn  of  his  strength  oppressed, 
mocked,  insulted,  will  not  at  some  future  period,  remote  it  may  be,  collect 
the  force  of  his  energies,  and  hurl  down  the  whole  fabric  of  tyranny  on  the 
devoted  heads  of  his  followers  ?  Station  a  guard,  if  you  please,  in  every 
house, — set  a  spy  over  every  man's  actions ;  but  tell  me,  of  what  effect 
will  your  guards  and  your  spies  be  in  restraining  the  current  of  men's 
thoughts  ?  Were  they  possessed  of  no  other  means  of  coming  to  a  sense  of 
their  wrongs,  the  very  circumstance  that  there  are  in  the  communitv  those 
who  do  not  feel  these  wrongs,  (the  ministers  of  despotism,)  this  very  circum 
Stance,  I  say,  would  inevitably,  though  it  may  be  slowly,  raise  in  the  minds 
of  the  people  reflections  on  their  own  condition  as  compared  with  that  of 
their  nilers.  It  will  then  be  but  a  short  process  for  them  to  begin  to  desire 
better  things ;  and  every  one  at  all  conversant  with  human  nature,  knows 
full  well  that  when  men  once  begin  to  desire  in  earnest,  it  is  not  long  ere 
they  make  an  efibrt  to  possess  themselves  of  the  object  of  their  wishes.  A 
spirit  of  insubordination  has  thus  arisen ;  and  now  tell  me,  student  of  his 
tory,  tell  me,  politician,  where  will  it  end  ?  Let  tyranny,  and  the  illibei'al 
principles  which  have  hitherto  prevailed,  in  haughty  "assurance  of  their 
own  might,  tremble,  for  their  downfall  is  at  hand.  All  the  experience  of 
all  ages  shows  full  well,  that  when  a  people  are  once  roused  to  a  sense  of 
hijuries,  opiates  more  powerful  than  man  can  tell  of,  are  required  to  lull 
them  to  a  second  sleep. 

If,  now,  there  be  any  need  of  examples  in  proof  of  what  I  have  advanced, 
I  have  only  to  i-efer  you  to  the  revolution  which  required  the  best  blood  of 
France  to  wash  away  the  illiberal  principles  which  had  hitherto  swayed  the 
throne, — to  the  free  states  of  North  America,  who  owe  their  independence 
to  the  blind  and  nan-ow  policv  which  had  actuated  the  British  monarchy 
ever  since  the  days  of  the  first  James, — to  Greece,  the  last  strong  hold,  west 
of  the  Dardanelles,  of  those  who  once  spread  the  terror  of  their  arms  from 
beyond  the  farthest  stretch  of  the  Caucasian  range  to  the  most  distant 
shores  of  remotest  Europe ',  but  whose  oppressive  and  impolitic  principles 
are  now,  we  confidently  trust,  about  to  force  them,  a  disgraced  and  despised 
race,  with  a  weak  and  irresolute  govei  nment,  into  a  corner  of  the  eai-th,  a 
terrible  monument  to  all  nations  of  the  insufficiency  of  intolerance  for  the 
ijupport  of  power. 

But,  while  in  a  government  established  on  illiberal  principles,  there  are 
the  most  fonnidable  springs  of  ruin,  I  believe  that  principles,  the  opposite  of 
these,  contribute,  more  than  any  other  cause,  to  the  strength  and  stability 
of  government.  It  is  supposed,  of  course,  that  the  people  are  enlightened  to 
the  advantages  and  necessity  of  government  in  some  shape  or  other ;  and  to 
suppose  that  they  would  be  willing  subjects  of  a  power  whose  constant  aim 
was  to  oppress  and  restrain  their  energies,  to  reduce  their  prerogatives,  to 
obstruct  their  interest,  and  to  hinder  their  advancement  in  moral  and 
intellectual  improvement ;  or,  to  suppose  that  they  would  become  willing 
instruments  of  destruction  to  a  government,  which,  keeping  pace  with  the 
progress  of  civilization,  and  the  spirit  of  the  age,  would  secure  to  them 
everv  privilege,  in  as  high  a  degree  as  would  be  possible  for  them  to  enjoy, 
would  be  to  deny  the  very  circumstance  which  has  just  been  taken  for 
granted,  namely,  an  enlightened  condition  of  the  people.  So  far,  indeed, 
from  overturning  the  government,  their  main  solicitude,  unless  their  motives 


352  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

of  conduct  were  strangely  at  variance  with  those  which  usually  actuate 
men  in  other  cases,  would  be  as  to  the  means  of  supporting  it  in  its  fullest 
Btrength ;  —  so  far  from  discarding  it,  their  chief  anxiety  would  be  lest  other 
powers,  jealous  of  the  influence  of  such  an  example  on  their  subjects,  should 
endeavor  to  wrest  it  from  them. 

It  is,  in  fact,  but  the  futile  imaginings  of  a  disordered  brain,  which  see  ir 
the  effect  of  liberal  principles  any  thing  approaching  to  the  dissolution  of 
government.  For  wnat  arc  liberal  principles  but  a  disposition  to  keep  pace 
with  the  spirit  of  improvement  which  is  constantly  going  on  among  men  ? 
And,  can  any  one,  m  his  sober  senses,  aver  that  good  government  and 

f general  civilization  are  things  so  entirely  mcompatible,  that  the  one  cannot 
)e  enjoyed  but  at  the  expense  of  the  other  ?  That  vigor  and  stability  in 
national  councils  are  ever,  from  their  very  nature,  inconsistent  with  the 
progress  of  the  mind  ?  That  if  men  insist  on  moving  onward  in  the  march 
of  intellect,  they  must  be  content  to  sacrifice  to  this  object  every  thing  like 
a  firm  and  well-regulated  state  administration?  And  so,  on  the  contrary, 
if  they  wish  to  be  preserved  from  constant  anarchy  and  civil  contention, 
they  must  be  satisfied  to  remain  in  barbarism  and  degradation  ?  Such  doc- 
trines are  too  monstrous  to  be  harbored  for  a  moment ;  but  yet,  I  defy  any 
one  to  deny  that  they  are  the  doctrines  of  those  who  contend  that  liberal 
principles  are  incompatible  with  the  strength  of  government.  For  myself 
were  such  my  belief,  I  would  utterly  discard  all  allegiance  to  society.  I 
would  betake  myself  to  the  obscurest  corner  of  the  earth ;  and  there,  dwell 
mg  aloof  from  the  world,  and  inaccessible  to  any  of  my  race,  I  would  prose 
^ute  the  culture  of  my  understanding  and  my  heart  by  myself,  and  undis 
turbed  by  that  connexion  with  my  species,  which  would,  according  to 
these  doctrines,  involve  my  mind  in  ignoi-ance  and  darkness.  My  name 
ghould  be  no  more  known  among  all  mankind.  I  would  live  alone ;  and 
none  other  should  rule  over  me  than  the  Almighty. 


"  lateral  Principles  as  affectiruf  the  Strength  of  Chvemment.''^ 

That  the  rights  which  nature  has  bestowed  upon  man  may  be  protected 
and  enjoyed,  lie  finds  it  necessary  to  subject  himself  to  laws,  and  to  part 
with  some  portion  of  his  original  freedom,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  rights 
and  freedom  of  his  fellow-men.  The  social  system,  of  which  he  is  a  member, 
entitles  him  to  other  rights,  without  which,  civil  liberty  is  not  enjoyed,  and 
the  ends  for  which  societv  was  fonned  arc  not  obtained.  Those  principles 
of  government  are  libera"!,  which  secure  to  man  the  rights  of  nature  and 
of  society.  They  are  the  principles  which  conduce  to  tlie  happiness  and 
prosperity  of  a  nation  ;  but  it  has  been  observed  by  political  writers,  and 
the  observation  has  been  so  frequently  made  that  it  appears  almost  an  axiom, 
that  those  very  principles  have  a  powerful  efl'cct  in  weakening  government. 
Reason  and  experienco  confinn  the  remark.  Though  history  has  often  and 
clearly  proved  to  us  that  man  is  unwilling  to  bo  oppressed  by  man,  and  will 
not  sacrifice  his  just  rights,  when  the  possession  of  them  will  not  injure 
others,  he  has  unfortunately  seldom  restrained  himself  from  abusing  as  soon 
as  ho  begins  to  enjoy  them,  till  ho  finally  subjects  himself  to  oppression 
which  ho  endeavored  to  escape. 

It  is  in  their  liability  to  abuse,  that  the  great  danger  of  liberal  principles 
18  seen.  To  enjoy  their  advantages  much  precaution  must  be  taken  against 
their  evils.  They  are  liable  to  bo  carried  to  excess.  To  establish  the 
proper  security,  and  to  mark  out  the  proper  limits  for  them,  s?cm  almost 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  o63 

impossible.  The  work  v/ill  be  imperfect.  The  examples  of  ancient  gov 
ernments  too  plainly  prove  that  it  was  so  in  them.  Faction  and  corruption 
were  the  constant  companions  of  liberty,  continually  distracting  and  en 
feebling  government.  1  hey  soon  exerted  their  pernicious  influence,  when 
Athens"  began  to  enjoy  that  liberal  principle,  which  rendered  the  voice  of  the 
people  the  law  by  which  they  were  to  be  governed.  Tliat  free  principle 
which  declared  the  proud  patricians  and  humble  plebeians  of  Kome  equal, 
and  gave  the  latter  the  enjoyment  of  public  offices  in  company  with  the 
former,  added  not  to  the  strength  of  government.  We  find  that  the  interval 
of  tranquillity  was  but  short,  and  that  the  tumults  of  the  people,  and  the 
opprsssion  of  ambitious  citizens  soon  followed.  SyUa  was  the  favorite,  and 
became  the  tyrant  of  the  people. 

"  So  every  scope  by  the  immoderate  use 
Leads  to  restraint." 

The  principal  cause  of  the  fall  of  the  republic  of  Bome,  has  been  ascribed 
to  the  excess  of  power  which  the  favor  of  the  people  too  often  intrusted  to 
unworthy  hands. 

As  liberal  principles  allow  the  people  some  degree  of  power,  the  question 
may  with  good  reason  be  asked,  whether  that  power  will  content  them ; 
whether  it  will  not  be  intentionally  abused,  or  imprudently  exercised  ? 

They  are  forgetful  of  the  relation  in  which  they  stand  to  each  other ;  of 
the  responsibility  under  which  they  are  placed.  Ignorant  or  thoughtless  of 
the  benefit  of  the  whole,  Avhich  the  privileges  of  each  individual  enable  him 
to  render,  they  too  readily  sacrifice  the  good  of  the  public  to  their  own  par- 
tiahty  for  some  flattering  demagogue.  They  are  not  sensible  of  the  true 
value  of  the  liberal  principle  which  is  put  in  their  hands,  but  they  are  fully 
aware  that  they  possess  power,  and  will  misapply  their  possession  to  gi-atify 
themselves,  at  the  expense  of  the  public  safety,  and  the  public  happiness. 
Such  is  the  abuse  of  the  right  of  suffrage,  an  abuse  to  which  the  privilege  is 
always  exposed,  however  well  informed  the  people  may  be  of  the  true  design 
of  society,  and  of  the  happiness  which  it  is  in  their  power  to  confer. 

We  need  not  examine  ancient  history,  and  the  imperfect  constitutions  of 
old  governments,  to  be  convinced  that  free  principles  will  be  dangerous. 
The  history  of  later  times  will  give  us  the  same  information.  Will  not  our 
own  days  teach  us  the  same  lesson  ?  We  have  seen  the  dangers  of  the  press. 
In  the  words  of  one  of  our  own  writers,  "  Its  freedom  will  be  abused.  It  is 
a  precious  pest,  and  necessary  mischief,  that  has  spoiled  the  temper  of  our 
dberty,  and  may  shorten  its  life." 

Another  effect  to  be  feared  from  liberal  principles,  is  a  want  of  respect 
towards  those  who  make  and  administer  the  laws.  If  the  people  are, 
directly  or  indirectly,  the  makers  of  the  laws,  do  they  the  more  willingly 
submit  to  them !  The  magistrates  whom  they  have  created,  they  will  look 
upon  as  their  equals,  but  equality  may  be  forgotten  by  the  magistrates 
Tney  will  be  approved  by  some,  and  disapproved  by  others.  There  wil 
arise  opposition  of  party  to  party,  and  oppression  of  the  one  by  the  other 
The  purposes  of  government  are  forgotten,  while  each  looks  with  jealous} 
upon  his  opponent.  There  is  none  of  that  feeling  of  awe  and  reverenc* 
which  the  authority  of  an  hereditary  niler  inspires,  whose  cradle  is  a  throne, 
of  whose  oppression  it  is  dangerous  to  complain,  and  the  success  of  resist 
ance  doubtful. 

It  is  the  foundation  of  the  political  theory  of  a  distinguished  writer,  thai 
honor  is  the  support  of  a  monarchy,  fear  of  a  despotism,  and  virtue  of  « 
republic.  The  strongest  governments  place  their  security  in  principlei 
which  awe  or  captivate  their  subjects.  They  take  advantage  of  every 
mode  which  will  excite  terror  or  delighi.  The  will  of  a  despot  bows  dowp 
the  victims  of  ignorance  with  fear  and  trembling,  who  hardly  dare  to  kno^ 
that  nature  has  bestowed  upon  them  faculties  and  rights,  which  were  givei 
for  their  happiness,  or  the  strength  of  government  is  derived  from  a  fountain 
30* 


354  '  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

of  honor,  and  consists  in  ornaments  of  silver  and  gold,  in  the  stars  and  erand 
crosses  of  nobility,  or  in  the  amusements  by  which  men  are  channed  into 
Bubmission.  We  may,  then,  sa;^,  though  in  a  different  sense  from  the  origi 
nal,  "  Amusement  is  the  happmess  of  those  who  cannot  thinlv.'*  But  in 
what  does  the  strength  of  liberal  governments  consist  ?  In  something  of  far 
higher  authority  than  the  will  of  any  mortal ;  in  something  more  ennobling 
than  all  other  honor ;  in  the  only  true  divine  right  of  sovereignty,  the  virtue 
of  the  people. 

This  is  a  strong  foundation ;  but  is  it  not  one  which  is  more  to  be  desired 
than  expected  ?  It  is  little  to  the  honor  of  human  nature  that  the  principle 
of  fear  has  been  found  to  have  a  more  powerful  influence  than  the  principle 
of  virtue.  Such  has  been  the  case ;  and  liberal  principles,  from  (he  wan* 
of  power  to  preserve  them  in  their  purity,  have  too  often  produced  effects 
which  it  seemed  contrary  to  their  nature  to  produce.  Though  they  may 
be  beneficial  to  themselves,  they  will  be  corrupted,  unless  there  is  that 
degree  of  intellectual  and  moral  cultivation  in  the  community  which  we  are 
not  justified  in  expecting.  It  is  true,  that  there  is'  little  hope  of  virtue  and 
learning  among  a  people  without  liberal  j/finciples  to  encourage  and  support 
them.  Some  portion  of  freedom  is  certainly  necessary  before  virtue  can  be 
expected  to  display  herself,  and  exert  her  influence  openly,  and  before  the 
mind  can  exercise  to  advantage  the  faculties  with  which  it  is  gifted.  But 
does  it  follow  that  this  liberty  will  always  reform  ?  community  ?  Liberal 
principles  may  be  adopted  too  suddenly,  before  the  character  of  a  people  is 
prepared  for  them,  and  then,  while  they  produce  not  the  happiness  which 
thev  otherwise  would  produce,  will  create  anarchy  or  oppression. 

'fhus  it  appears  that  some  information  and  virtue  are  required  for  the 
protection  or  liberty.  But,  when  free  principles  are  established,  and  they 
are  producing  contentment,  virtue  may  not  be  secured,  may  not  be  pre 
served.  All  the  elTect  which  fear  has  over  the  mind  is  removed,  and  the 
faculties  are  roused  to  life  and  exertion  from  a  state  of  tranquillity,  but  a 
tranquillity  like  that  of  the  tombs.  To  escape  from  the  terror  of  despotism, 
is  a  blessing ;  but  there  is  danger  of  the  slavery  of  vice.  Virtue  is,  indeed. 
encourageaby  liberty  to  come  forward  to  the  light,  and  to  exercise  herself 
for  the  benefit  of  man ;  but  vice  meets  with  like  encouragement,  and  will 
readily  seize  its  opportunity  to  gratify  itself,  and  to  exert  its  corrupting 
influence. 

The  unfortunate  tenninations  of  many  revolutions  in  favor  of  liberty,  are 
to  be  found  in  the  want  of  virtue  and  'knowledge  among  the  people,  who 
are  conseonently  incapable  of  governing  themselves. 

Since,  then,  liberal  principles  have  been  so  constantly  abused,  unless  the 
people  are,  in  a  high  degree,  virtuous  and  enlightened,  we  must  look  for 
Btrength  to  the  checks  provided  against  the  abuse  of  power  in  the  separata 
departments  of  government ;  not  to  the  agreeable,  though  poisonous  prin 
ciples  of  lil^rty,  but  to  the  antidote  which  is  constantly  administered 
AgaiuBl  thdu  uiingerouB  ellects. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  B5ti 

XCIV 
DISPUTATIONS. 

Disputations  are  exercises  in  which  parties  reason  in  op- 
position to  each  other  on  some  question  proposed.  They  are 
verbal  contests  respecting  the  truth  of  some  fact,  opinion, 
proposition,  or  argument. 

As  hterary  exercises,  they  are  principally  of  two  kinds.  Phi- 
losophical, and  Forensic  Disputations. 

Philosophical  Disputations  are  those  in  which  some  philo- 
sophical fact,  principle  or  theory  is  discussed. 

Forensic  Disputations  are  those  in  which  some  legal,  moral 
or  pohtical  subject  is  argued. 

Example  1. 

OP    A    FORENSIC     DISPUTATION. 


Whether  Popular  Superstitions  or  Enlightened  Opinion,  he  most  famrahU 
to  the  growth  of  Poetical  Literature. 

Fable  and  superstition  form  so  large  a  part  of  the  ground-work  of  an- 
cient poetry,  and  are  so  intimately  connected  with  that  of  all  succeeding 
ages,  that  a  partial  investigation  of  this  subject  might  lead  us  to  very  er- 
roneous conclusions.  From  the  bare  consideration  of  this  fact,  we  rnight 
be  induced  to  give  assent  to  that  opinion,  which  would  make  superstition 
indispensable  to  the  production  of  poetry,  and  which  would  thereby  con- 
fine its  progress  to  a  certain  period  in  the  civilization  of  the  world.  ^  We 
might  as  well,  however,  consider  the  dross  as  a  constituent  of  the  virgin 
gold,  as  suppose  that  the  imperfections  and  errors  connected  with  poetry 
were  essential  to  the  divine  art. 

Homer  has  left  a  monument  of  genius  which  will  be  read  and  admired 
by  remote  ages  yet  to  come  ;  but  will  it  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  those 
prodigies  of  former  times,  the  history  of  which  alone  remains  to  them,  for 
which,  in  their  time,  they  can  find  no  parallel  or  counterpart  1  Will,  then, 
his  poetry  be  viewed  as  the  production  of  an  art  peculiar  to  former  ages, 
but  in  those  times  unknown ;  a  shadow,  an  illusion,  which  has  vanished 
before  the  increasing  light  of  civilization ;  or  will  it  not  rather  be  admired 
and  venerated,  as  one  of  the  earliest  fountains  to  which  posterity  can  trace 
the  magnificent  stream,  which,  in  their  age,  may  be  extending  its  healthy 
and  invigorating  influence  through  all  the  channels  of  society  ?  Yet  the 
idea  that  superstitious  opinions  are  essentially  important  to  the  production 
of  poetry,  would  exclude  the  possibility  of  any  great  progress  in  the  art. 
Since  error  must  gradually  disappear  before  knowledge  and  civilization, 
and  since  superstition  must  vanish  wherever  Christianity  sheds  its  blessed 


856  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION, 

influence,  it  follows,  that  poetry  must,  some  day,  in  the  progress  of  the 
world,  he  seen  in  the  decline.  The  possibility  of  this,  we  should  he  nn 
willing  for  a  moment  to  admit.  Poetry  is  not  the  peculiar  characteristic 
of  a  rude  and  imperfect  state  of  society;  it  is  not  a  plant  which  can  thrive 
only  in  the  soil  of  ignorance ;  on  tlie  contrary,  an  art,  which  I  do  not  say, 
keeps  pace  with  the  improvement  of  society,  but  is  destined  rather  to  precede 
it ;  lo  be,  as  it  were,  man's  Guide  to  indefinite  advancement.  In  proof  of 
our  position,  we  need  only  refer  to  the  elevating  influence  of  poetry  itself 
an  influence  admitted  by  all,  and  one  which  every  breast  has  more  or  less 
experienced.  The  poet  s  influence  is  through  the  feelings,  and,  as  man 
kind  in  their  nature  have  been,  and  always  will  be,  essentially  the  same 
the  true  poet,  in  the  exercise  of  his  profession,  has  the  key  to  the  sensibili 
ties  and  affections  of  his  fellow-men ;  when  he  touches  the  strings  of  hu 
lyre,  it  is  only  to  produce  those  notes  with  which  every  bosom  throbs  ik 
unison.  It  becomes,  then,  an  easy  task  for  him  to  instruct  and  to  elevate,  to 
call  man  away  from  the  absorbing  influence  of  worldly  passions  and  pur- 
suits, to  a  view  of  what  is  most  elevated  in  his  own  nature,  and  most  noble 
in  the  creation  around  him,  to  wean  him  from  the  present,  and  fit  him  for 
the  future.  This  exertion  of  a  refining  and  elevating  influence  is  a  pre 
rogative  of  the  poet  admitted  hy  all ;  but  must,  we  also  believe,  that,  when 
he  is  most  successful  in  liis  glorious  office,  he  is  at  the  same  time  dimin- 
ishing the  power  and  will  in  his  fellow-men  to  appreciate  or  countenance 
his  works. 

The  poet's  peculiar  liberty  and  privilege  is  to  give  free  wing  to  his  im- 
agination 5  a  liberty  allowed  by  every  one.  In  poetry,  indeed,  we  look 
for  fiction,  though  its  legitimate  object  be  truth.  Popular  superstitions, 
therefore,  aftbrd  an  easy  and  ample  subject  for  the  poet's  pen,  and  always 
must,  to  some  degree,  enhance  the  beauty  and  attraction  of  his  works. 
For  what  are  popular  superstitions  but  the  dreams  of  the  imagination 
perhaps  the  fantasies  of  the  poet's  own  brain  ?  It  is  asserted  by  some 
writers,  that  the  Greeks  were  indebted  for  their  mythology  to  the  writings 
of  Hesiod  and  Homer ;  that  their  religious  notions  were  vague  and  un- 
settled until  the  fertile  imagination  of  tlieir  poets  devised  for  them  a  sys- 
tem of  worship.  Indeed,  we  may  safely  believe,  that  a  great  proportion, 
if  not  most  of  the  superstitions,  which  have  prevailed  in  the  world,  have 
sprung  into  existence  at  the  poet's  calling.  When  this  is  not  the  case, 
tljcy  owe  their  origin  to  the  disordered  imagination  of  some  less-gifted 
mind.  From  the  wonders  and  beauties  of  nature,  then,  one  of  the  poet's 
most  fertile  themes,  he  can  no  longer  receive  inspiration,  when  the  float 
ing  visions  of  superstition  no  longer  surround  them;  when  belief  in  that 
which  ignorance,  or  the  fancy  of  former  poets,  has  generated,  has  lieen 
resigned  for  more  rational  opinions.  The  genius  of  poetry  forbids  such  a 
sentiment.  Does  the  flower  which  has  blossomed  and  ifaded  from  the 
crcation  become  destitute,  in  the  poet's  eye,  of  poetical  associations,  be 
cause  he  cannot  credit  the  imaginative  belief  of  ancient  bards,  that  Flora 
has  it  in  her  care,  while  the  si)orting  Zephyrus  fans  its  petals,  parched  by 
tlie  mid-day  sun?  Is  the  distant  planet  less  wortliv  a  place  in  the  poet's 
thouf^ht,  because  its  secret  influence,  whether  good  or  evil,  can  no  more 
be  credited  ?  Does  "  old  ocean  "  lose  any  of  its  suhlimitv,  because  it  is  no 
longer,  even  in  the  poet's  mind,  peopled  hy  the  Tritons,  Nereids,  and 
father  Neptune  ?  Such,  and  like  notions,  were  the  theme  of  ancient  poets 
and  their  countrymen  gave  willing  croience  to  their  tales.  The  modern 
bard  mi;;ht  as  well  stalk  the  streets  in  the  toga  and  the  buskin,  as  bring 


AIDS    TO    ENGLl&H    COMPOSITION.  357 

into  his  lines  the  dreams  of  heathen  mythology.  Yet  he  is  not  circum- 
ecribed  by  narrow  bounds,  because  he  may  not  follow,  in  the  regions  of 
imagination,  the  wild  excursions  of  the  ancients,  or  because  his  own  light 
fancy  may  soar  no  higher  than  less  active  reason  can  accompany  her. 

The  true  poet,  so  far  from  requu'ing,  will  decline  the  guidance  or  dic- 
tation of  his  predecessor.  It  is  his  office  and  his  pride  to  present  his  sub- 
ject in  a  novel  and  interesting  view ;  to  shed  upon  it  new  light,  and  invest 
It  with  additional  attractions.  If  we  admit  this,  we  need  have  no  appre- 
hensions that  the  muse  vnll  be  invoked  in  vain,  though  she  may  not  be 
courted,  as  in  former  days. 

We  would  not  willingly  detract  from  the  merits  of  ancient  poetry,  or 
that  of  any  bard  that  has  yet  dawned  upon  the  world ;  but  as  we  would 
not  limit  the  progress  of  any  art  or  science  by  the  advancement  which 
they  may  have  reached  in  former  times,  so  we  would  not  circumscribe  the 
"  divinest  of  all  arts  "  within  the  naiTow  boundary  of  a  few  centuiies  in 
the  world's  infancy. 


Wliether  Popular  Superstitions  or  Enlightened  Opinion  he  most  favorable 
to  the  groivth  of  Poetical^iteratiire. 

"  Good  sense,"  says  Coleridge,  "  is  the  body  of  poetic  genius,  fancy  its 
drapeiy,  motion  its  life,  and  imagination  its  soul,"  —  and  it  is  the  remark 
of  one  who  had  learned  to  analyze  with  exactness  the  feelings  of  the  poet. 
Let  us  see  how  well  examination  justifies  the  definition.  W(.may  con- 
sider the  subject  under  two  heads  :  —  1st.  Do  superstition  and  enlightiencd 
opinion  united  promote  poetical  literature  1  2d.  If  they  are  not  capable 
of  being  thus  united,  do  our  ordinary  occupations  promote  that  literature  ? 

The  first  point  we  shall  not  strive  to  establish.  Popular  superstitions 
are  very  few  at  the  present  day.  Intelligence  is  widely  diffused ;  books 
and  readers  are  multiplying,  and  enlightened  opinion  is  setting  up  a  very 
wide  dominion.  It  is  now  thought  impossible  for  superstition  and  educa 
tion  to  exist  together.  Then  are  our  ordinary  occupations,  in  the  second 
place,  favorable  to  poetical  literature  ?  Admitting  that  enlightened 
opinion  is  gaining  the  ascendency,  let  us  see  whether  it  favors  the  imagin- 
ation, —  whether  a  prevailing  shrewdness,  and  the  common  aifairs  of  life, 
are  sufficient,  without  the  aid  of  superstition,  for  poets  and  novelists. 

Life  is  made  up  of  realities ;  our  wants,  though  continually  supplied, 
are  continually  to  be  supplied.  The  atmosphere  of  the  world  is  the  chil- 
ling atmosphere  of  reality,  exertion,  and  disappointment.  There  is  little 
poetry  in  common  life;  little  poetiy  in  unrcAvarded  exertion,  or  unde 
served  oppression,  or  disappointed  ambition.  Yet  these  make  an  essen 
tial  part  of  life,  and  they  are  precisely  what  give  such  a  matter- of-facD, 
anpoetical  tone  to  most  minds.  How  many  feel,  as  they  follow  where 
their  duties  direct  them,  any  tiling  of  poetry  or  romance  1  Are  not  all 
disheartened  at  times  by  the  plain  realities  of  their  lot  1  Notwithstanding 
many  happy  connexions,  we  sometimes  feel  ourselves,  both  as  individuals 
and  nations,  too  much  fettered,  and  want  something  to  delight  and  en- 
noble, as  well  as  keep  us  alive.  This  deficiency  is  supplied  by  the  emo 
ticms  springing  from  popular  delusion ;  which,  stealing  like  a  mist  over 


358  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

the  picture  oefore  us,  softens  the  whole  landscape.  The  restraints  of 
society  may  fetter  poetic  genius,  but  the  vision  and  the  faculty  divine  cir- 
cumstances cannot  entirely  repress ;  whenever  it  is  curbed  by  the  world 
popular  superstition  frees  it  from  its  bondage,  and  kindles  again  the 
trampled  spark. 

What  we  degrade  as  superstition,  is,  in  truth,  the  very  soul  of  poetry, 
and  no  more  separable  from  it  than  soul  from  body.  It  may  fail  of  ita 
object,  and  make  gross  what  ought  to  be  pure,  but  the  spirit  that  would 
condemn  superstition  on  such  grounds,  would  spurn  a  picture  of  the 
Madonna  because  the  same  pencil  might  have  delineated  a  vixen.  Super- 
stition springs  from  the  imagination  and  fancy;  poetical  literature  i? 
directly  addressed  to  these  powers  of  mind,  and  cannot  flourish  without 
them.  Philosophy  and  history  are  not  dependent  on  them  ;  if  they  stat*- 
facts,  and  draw  just  conclusions,  their  ends  are  attained.  Superstition,  or 
the  contrary,  is  an  embodying  of  the  grand,  the  tender,  the  terriiic,  as 
suits  the  mind,  —  the  creating,  as  it  were,  a  world  of  passions  and  percep- 
tions too  spiritual  for  common  life,  and  yet  too  natural  not  to  be  exercised 
Now,  is  not  all  this  poetry  in  its  true  sense  ? 

Every  imaginative  or  superstitious  nation  has  abounded  in  poetical 
literature.  Their  pecuUarities  of  thought  assist  the  author,  besides  culti 
vating  the  taste  and  exercising  the  imagination  of  the  reader.  The  suc- 
cess of  modem  poetic  literature,  notwithstanding  our  want  of  superstition, 
is  not  unfavorable  to  this  view#  A  change  has  been  effected  in  this  kind 
of  writing  corresponding  to  the  extension  of  education.  The  novelist  now 
draws  from  human  nature  rather  than  superstition ;  formerly  materials 
were  abundant  and  fanciful,  but  they  were  not  employed  with  discretion 
Perhaps  the  niagnitircnce  of  Milton  will  be  adduced  as  an  instance  of  no 
superstition  in  the  author,  and  requiring  none  in  the  reader.  But  Miltons 
adorn  every  age.  Milton's  poetry  has  been  compared  to  the  ocean ;  and 
although  the  ocean  is  sublime  in  its  own  native  grandeur,  yet  the  beauty 
of  the  inland  stream  —  the  lesser  poetic  strain  —  is  increased  when  il 
sounds  through  the  hidden  ravine,  and  is  overshadowed  by  the  dark 
foliage  of  superstition. 

Obsei-ve  the  untutored  inhabitants  of  the  mountain, — where  the  link  is 
shortest  between  nature  and  nature's  God,  —  where  every  cUffis  invested 
with  some  popular  legend,  and  every  valley  and  lake  and  hill-top  may  tell 
some  tale  of  fancy,  some  dreaming  of  speculation,  —  obsen'e  these,  as 
tliey  ])ay  there  the  vows  of  a  wild  superstition,  and  do  you  not  contem- 
plate the  very  essence  of  pootrv  ?  Is  there  no  poetry  in  superstition  ? 
Then  bid  Mac])cth  and  Hamlet  be  forgotten,  and  consign  "  the  Wizard  of 
the  North  "  to  an  unheeded  tomb.  Call  the  dreams  of  his  fancy  the  fol- 
lies of  disease,  and  pity  them.  If  we  deny  the  poetical  nature  of  super- 
stition, what  sliall  be  said  of  those  j)laccs  where  the  genius  of  Scott  haa 
revelled  till  it  has  hallowed  the  very  traditions  of  ignorance?  Can  we 
make  i)o\vcrk'ss  the  wand  which,  in  Shakspeare's  hand,  called  the  mur- 
dered to  the  banquet,  harassed  the  guilty  conscience,  and  urged  the  ir 
resolute  to  revenge  ? 

A  good  ])n>of  that  mere  enlightenment  does  little  for  imaginative 
writ<Ts,  may  l)e  found  in  this  country.  We  are  wanting  in  popular 
legends,  and,  bo  it  said  with  deference  to  wise  opponents,  wanting  in 
poetical  literature.  Our  poets  and  novelists  are  few,  and  feel  too  little  the 
mspiration  of  an  American  home.  Our  national  character  may  be  the 
better  for  tliis ;  but  our  pursuits  have  made  us,  as  a  people,  vastly  unpo 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  359 

etical.  This  is  readily  accounted  for.  We  have  been  accustomed  from 
childhood,  and  still  continue,  to  regard  chiefly  what  is  necessary  in  life 
Interest  and  thrift  are  graven  on  every  thing  in  America  5  the  waves  and 
the  winds  are  unwelcome  without  the  expected  gain ;  and  the  cliff  and 
stream,  however  beautiful,  are  unconnected  with  superstitious  legends 
Do  not  the  words  of  one  of  our  poets  apply  to  many  of  his  countrymen  "i 

"  The  churl  who  holds  it  heresy  to  think, 
Who  loves  no  music  but  the  dollar's  clink. 
Who  laughs  to  scorn  the  wisdom  of  the  schools, 
And  deems  the  first  of  poets  first  of  fools. 
Who  never  found  what  good  from  science  grew, 
Save  the  grand  truth  that  one  and  one  are  two. 
And  marvels  Bowditch  o'er  a  book  sliould  pore, 
Unless  to  make  those  two  turn  into  four : 
Who,  placed  where  CatskiU's  foreheaa  greets  the  sky, 
Grieves  that  such  quarries  all  unhewn  should  lie, 
Or,  gazing  where  iJiagara's  torrents  thrill, 
Exclaims,  '  A  monstrous  stream  to  turn  a  mill  I '  " 

Yes,  even  at  this  moment  is  the  demon  of  utilitarianism  throwing  his 
bonds  around  the  cataract  of  Niagara,  —  to  scoop  with  a  clam-shell  the 
wicked,  waste  water,  and  substitute  for  the  torrent's  roar,  the  soul  thril- 
ling music  of  the  clapper  to  a  grist-mill !  If  this  is  plain  common-sense, 
it  is  not  poetry.  True,  a  few  of  the  red  man's  race  remain  to  wonder  at 
the  taste  which  can  so  misuse  their  country ;  but  their  spirit  has  been 
broken,  and  they  are  strangers  in  the  land. 

What,  then,  is  the  use  of  popular  superstition  1  Not  to  bind  man  to  a 
reverence  of  folly,  nor  to  exact  undeserved  admiration,  but  to  soften  his 
nature,  b^  exercising  some  of  his  higher  powers  and  sensibilities,  and  thus 
make  mind  minister  to  happiness. 

PHIL0S0P5ICAL    DISPUTATION. 

Example. 

[One  side  only  Is  presented.] 

Whether  Intdlectucd  Improvement  be  favorable  to  the  Productions  of 
Imagination. 

Every  age  and  every  nation  has  its  distinguished  men.  It  has  had  its 
heroes,  poets,  orators,  philosophers,  and  statesmen.  Whether  we  go  to 
the  abodes  of  civilization,  or  to  the  haunts  of  savages,  we  shall  find  men 
who  are  properly  the  master  spirits  of  their  age,  and  who  are  destined  to 
give  direction  to  the  opinions  and  actions  of  their  fellow  men.  This  arises 
from  the  very  constitution  of  society,  and  each  of  the  several  classes  of 
which  it  is  composed  are  in  some  degree  dependent  on  each  other. 
The  fame  of  the  hero  depends  on  the  historian  and  poet,  and,  in  return, 
the  achievements  of  the  former  afford  the  most  fertile  themes  for  the 
".atter.  Some  periods,  however,  are  more  favorable  than  others  for  the 
developement  of  a  particular  kind  of  talent.  The  ancients  recognized  an 
iron,  a  bronze,  and  a  golden  age,  and  no  impartial  reader  of  history  can 
doubt  the  justness  of  such  a  classification.  The  golden  age  was  the  ago 
when  literature  and  the  arts  flourished,  when  civilization  had  gained  the 
ascendency  over  barbarism,  and  when  the  rights  of  the  individual  had 
begun  to  be  respected. 


bOO  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

There  is,  undoubtedly,  an  opinion  prevalent,  that  intellectual  improve 
mcnt  is  unfavorable  to  the  imagination,  —  that  the  reasoning  power 
cjuniot  be  cultivated  without  impairing  it.  But  such  an  opinion  has  nc 
foundation  in  fact,  and  is  entitled  to  no  more  respect  than  a  thousand 
other  notions  that  are  handed  down  from  age  to  age,  and  are  regarded  a& 
true.  The  .enemies  of  free  government  tell  us,  that  learning  cannot 
flourish  where  all  are  acknowledged  free  and  equal ;  that  learned  men 
cannot  grow  up  except  in  the  sunshine  of  royal  favor ;  and  that  religion 
cannot  work  its  benign  eftects  except  on  an  ignorant  community,  and 
indcr  the  guidance  of  an  established  church.  The  different  relative  pro 
gross  of  the  sciences  and  works  of  imagination  can  be  accounted  for  with- 
out having  recourse  to  the  theory  above  mentioned.  A  science  is  nothing 
more  than  the  combined  experiments  and  discoveries  of  men  in  all  ages, 
while  a  work  of  imagination  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  work  of  a  single 
person.  The  philosopher  can  begin  where  Bacon  and  Newton  left  off- 
but  the  poet  must  begin  where  Homer  began. 

There  is  another  cause  for  the  prevalence  of  this  opinion,  in  the  erro- 
neous view  tiiken  of  the  works  of  an  uncultivated  people.  That  wild, 
figurative  language,  which  arises  from  its  barrenness,  is  often  thouj^^Iit  to 
be  conclusive  evidence  of  a  lively  imagination.  As  civilization  advances, 
that  wildness  and  extravagance  disappear;  as  language  becomes  more 
copioiis  and  fixed,  those  bold  figures  are  no  longer  used.  But  does  it 
follow,  that  the  imagination  is  less  lively  ?  That  that  faculty,  on  which 
our  liappiness  so  essentially  depends,  is  thus  impaired  by  the  very  means 
by  which  our  good  is  promoted  ?  It  cannot  be.  The  God  of  nature,  who 
made  "  wisdom's  ways  ways  of  pleasantness."  did  never  decree  that  the 
improvement  of  the  intellectual  should  diu-ken  that  faculty  which  is  truly 
the  mind's  eye,  and  through  which  the  past  as  well  as  the  future,  and  tho 
absent  as  well  as  the  present  can  be  scanned.  Imagination  does  not  con 
fine  itself  to  earth,  but 

"Tired  of  It 
And  this  diurnal  scone,  she  sprlns^s  aloft 
Through  fields  of  air,  jjursues  tho  flyinp  storm, 
Rldos  on  the  vollcvcd  lightning  through  the  heaveni, 
Or,  yoked  with  whirlwinds  and  tho  northern  blast, 
Sweeps  tho  long  track  of  day." 

Should  we  grant  that  intellectual  improvement  was  unfavorable  to 
productions  of  the  imagination,  then  we  should  no  longer  look  for  the 
best  works  of  that  character  among  a  civilized  people,  but  should  seek 
tliem  among  our  native  Indians,  or  tho  Tartars  of  Siberia.  We  should 
apj)ly  the  same  rules  to  individuals  as  to  nations.  The  least  cultivated 
minds  would  be  the  most  imaginative.  Wo  should  look  to  them  for 
bolder  flights  than  to  Milton,  roj)e,  or  Byron ;  the  absurdity  of  which  is 
seen  by  the  mere  statement  of  it,  and  the' principle  is  unworthy  of  serious 
ftrgumcnt.  History  as  well  iis  common  sense  refutes  it  Wlio  of  those 
bards  whose  works  are  as  immortal  as  tho  spirits  which  produced  them 
had  not  a  cultivated  mind  1  AVliich  of  them  did  not  find  their  imagina- 
tive powers  increased  by  intellectual  improvement  Though  the  ago 
of  Homer  was  nn  age  or  comparative  darkness,  yet  the  sun  of  literature 
must  luvve  slione  on  Greece,  or  the  inspured  fountains  of  poetry  would 
have  been  frozen  up.  He  never  would  have  sung  of  the  heroism  of  liis 
countrymen  had  not  their  feelings  responded  to  his.  He  never  would 
have  written  witJi  that  coiTCCt  taste  which  all  succeeding  poets  have  dp- 


AIDS    TO    ENo,..oxi    COMPOSITION.  861 

lighted  to  imitate,  had  not  reason  already  under  her  control  the  "wildness 
and  extravagance  of  the  untutored  mind. 

Our  own  age  bears  ample  testimony  that  intellectual  improvement 
does  not  destroy  genius  to  produce,  nor  diminish  desire  to  read  works  of 
imagination ;  for  there  never  was  a  time  when  so  much  fiction  is  written 
and  read  as  at  the  present.  Poetry  is  no  longer  the  language  of  history 
and  oratory,  but  it  is  what  it  ought  to  be,  the  language  of  imagination, 
clothing  in  its  various  dress  human  passions  and  atiections.  In  proof  of 
this  we  need  only  refer  to  that  giant  mind  whose  powers  have  been  so 
successfully  employed  in  the  world  of  fiction,  making  an  almost  entire 
revolution  in  that  department  of  literature.  He  has  shown  that  the  bold- 
est flights  of  the  imagination  are  not  in  the  darkness  of  night,  but  in  the 
clear  sunshine  of  day;  that  as  civilization  advances,  and  the  human 
mind  makes  progress,  so  will  all  its  powers  be  strengthened,  and  all  its 
faculties  be  enlarged.  Science  ofi'ers  to  us  new  realms,  and  the  astrono- 
mer, as  well  as  tiie  poet,  may  picture  to  himself  worlds  moving  round 
m  one  harmonious  whole  far  beyond  the  reach  of  mortal  view. 

The  obscure  and  the  uncertain  may  be  necessary  for  a  full  exercise  of 
the  imaginative  fiowers,  but  of  this  there  will  always  be  enough  until 
the  whole  field  rj  knowledge  is  explored.  In  truth,  with  the  advance 
of  knowledge  and  science,  mystery  does  not  diminish.  New  wonders  are 
continually  unfolding  themselves,  and  as  the  field  of  vision  is  enlarged, 
other  views  are  presented ;  there  still  remains  beyond  the  visible  and  the 
certain,  the  invisible  and  mysterious. 


xcv. 

ORATION. 

An  Oration  is  a  speecli  or  discourse  composed  according  to 
the  rules  of  oratory,  and  spoken  in  public ;  or,  it  may  be  de- 
fined a  popular  address  on  some  interesting  and  important 
subject.  The  term  is  now  applied  chiefly  to  speeches  or  dis- 
courses pronounced  on  special  occasions,  as  a  funeral  oration, 
an  oration  on  some  anniversary,  &c.,  and  to  academic  decla- 
mations. 

The  term  oration  is  derived  from  the  Latin  oro,  to  beg  or 
entreat,  and  properly  signifies  that  which  is  said  by  way  of 
entreaty. 

A  speech  is  in  general  that  which  is  addressed  in  a  formal 
manner  to  one  person  or  more.  A  harangue  is  a  noisy, 
tumultuous  speech,  addressed  to  many ;  an  oration  is  a  sol- 
31 


362  AIDS    TO    KNGLISH    COMrOSITlON. 

emn  speech  for  any  purpose.     An  address  is  any  *'iing  spoken 
or  written  from  one  person  or  party  to  another. 

A  rej^ular  oration  consists  of  six  parts,  namely : 

1.  The  exordium  or  introduction,  wliich  is  designed  to  gain  the  att«n 
tion  and  good  will  of  the  hearers,  and  render  them  open  a  persuasion. 

2.  The  stating  or  division  of  the  subject,  in  which  if  expressed  wliat 
he  object  of  the  speaker  is,  or  what  he  designs  to  prove  or  to  refute,  what 

doctrine  he  intends  to  inculcate,  &c. 

3.  The  narration  or  explication  of  facts  or  opinions  connected  with 
the  subject. 

4.  The  reasoning  or  arguments. 

5.  The  pathetic  part  in  which  an  attempt  is  made  to  interest  the  feel- 
ings of  the  hearers. 

6.  The  conclusion,  in  which  a  general  review  may  be  made  of  what 
has  been  previously  said ;  and  the  inferences  drawn  from  the  arguments 
may  be  distinctly  stated. 

It  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  all  of  these  parts  should  be  included 
in  an  oration.  Much  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  subject,  and  what  the 
speaker  has  in  view.  But  in  listening  to  a  performance  of  this  kind,  it  is 
expected  that  the  mind  will  be  informed,  the  reasoning  powers  exercised, 
the  imagination  excited,  and  the  taste  improved.  TV  subject  should 
be  one  which  requires  a  statement  and  elucidation  of  Interestifig  facts 
and  })rinciples;  a  course  of  calm,  dignified,  and  persuasive  reasoning. 
At  the  same  time,  it  sliould  allow  of  fine  writing.  There  should  be  op- 
portunity for  description  and  pathos,  for  historical  and  classical  allusions 
and  illustrations,  and  for  comprehensive  and  ennobling  views.  It  should 
admit  also  of  unity  of  plan.  The  style  should  be  elevated  and  elegant , 
the  form  of  expression  manly  and  dignified,  and  at  the  same  time  char 
Bcterized  by  force  and  vivacity.  The  ornament  should  be  of  a  high  kind 
—  such  as  ennobles  and  exalts  the  subject  Diffuseness  is  likftwist 
iesirable. 

Example  Ist, 

OF   AN    ENGLISH    ORATION.* 
PMk  Station. 

One  of  the  happiest,  as  well  as  most  useful,  improvements  which 
the  social  system  has  received,  since  the  earliest  congregation  of  savage 
life,  is  the  division  of  lalm:  While  it  insures  to  us  the  greatest  profit  at 
the  least  cost,  and  enables  the  labor  of  each  to  contrilnitc  most  effectually 
to  the  advantage  of  the  whole,  it  introduces  among  men  such  a  variety 
of  classes  and  conditions  —  it  parts  out  the  business  of  life  into  so  many 
and  various  lots,  as  mav  satisfy  each  peculiar  bias,  imprinted  by  nature 
on  the  minds  of  individuals.  The  great  world  has  many  mansions.  In 
one,  there  are  the  tools  of  industry  and  the  bread  of  care ;  in  another, 
the  insignia  of  power  —  the  diadem*  the  mitre,  and  all  the  aching  luxury 

*  On  taking  the  First  DeKroe. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  363 

of  thrones;  in  a  third,  is  hung  up  the  un^ding  laurel  of  the  Mi«e,  which 
as  "  it  plucks  all  gaze  its  way,"  lets  us  not  behold  the  cold  neglect  and 
starving  penury  which  too  often  await  it;  —  one  looketh  out  upon  the 
jy^reen  lie!ds,  with  their  blossoms,  their  full  ears,  their  bending  branches  ; 
and  another  lookeih  out  upon  the  broad  sea,  with  its  tall  ships  and  its 
cunning  merchandise ;  —  all  these,  and  many  more,  are  wide  open  before 
us.  and  it  requires  but  our  own  volition,  to  decide  wliere  we  will  enter  in 
and  abide. 

Among  the  manifold  professions  and  emplojinents  of  life,  however 
there  is  much  else,  beside  natural  bias,  to  ii>€uence  a  man's  choice.  The 
unyielding  necessity  of  gaining  a  livelihood,  binding  upon  most  of  us,  i? 
ample  security  that  no  one  of.  them  will  be  left  vacant.  Industry,  like 
wealth,  will  find  its  own  level.  A  deficiency  in  any  of  its  channels  will 
create  a  demand ;  and  self-interest  will  ever  be  at  hand,  to  supply  it.  But 
this  is  not  all.  We  are  all,  more  or  less,  the  f  laves  of  passion.  The  cold 
and  calculating  dictates  of  prudence  are  often  overruled  by  the  more 
specious  and  flattering  whispers  of  pride.  The  path  of  reason  is  too 
straight-forward  and  dull  for  our  eager  ambition.  We  cannot  bide  to 
toil  slowly  up  her  steep  and  thorny  way,  for  the  quiet  possession  of  scanty 
bread.  The  echoes  of  the  silver  trumpet  have  reached  our  ear,  and  we 
sigh  that  it  may  sound  out  our  own  name.  The  imperial  purple  has 
caught  our  eye,  and  the  plain  vestments  of  an  h-^norable  sufficiency  seem 
too  mean  and  common  for  our  wear ! 

Perhaps  there  is  no  prospect,  which  the  imagination  can  present,  so 
alluring  to  the  mind  of  a  young  man  as  that  of  public  life.  The  mere 
fact  of  being  a  theme  of  public  interest,  and  of  being  exalted  by  the  voice 
of  popular  favor  to  a  station  above  one's  fellows,  —  is  of  itself  a  boon, 
than  which,  it  would  seem,  the  most  ardent  ambition  could  desire  none 
gi-eater.  But  this  is  but  the  beginning  of  good  things,  —  but  the  porta! 
to  the  high  places  of  fame.  It  is  in  the  exercise  of  this  trust,  that  the 
full  harvest  of  glory  is  to  be  reaped.  Our  mind  is  to  counsel,  —  our  voice 
to  direct, — our  arm  to  govern  all ; — the  sceptre  of  power  is  to  be  handled, 
—  her  royal  robes  put  on  —  and  we  are  to  be  the  gaze  of  every  eye. 
These  are  the  rich  privileges  which  our  eager  fancy  holds  out  to  us  as  the 
rewards  of  office ;  and  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  that  the  coldest  ambi 
tion  should  kindle  at  the  view.  It  is  no  longer  a  strange  thing,  that  pop 
ular  favor  should  be  courted  and  public  station  sought  diligently  aftei 
It  is  man's  nature  to  look  upward  —  "  ut  aquila^  codum  versus,"  —  hoA» 
then  can  he  but  long  for  this  highest  heaven  of  human  glory  ? 

But  let  us  strip  off  the  gilded  veil  of  fancy,  and  look  in  upon  the  con 
dition  of  office  when  the  pomp  and  parade  are  over,  and  the  robes  arr 
thrown  aside.  And  here,  it  were  a  superfluous  task  to  inquire  into  th« 
comparative  happiness  and  ease  of  public  station.  It  needs  not  the  elo- 
quent philosophy  of  the  wronged  Duke,  to  tell  us,  that  a  life  of  even  un- 
deserved exile  is  sweeter  far  than  that  of  painted  pomp,  —  "  the  inhosjii 
table  woods  more  free  from  peril  than  the  envious  court,"  — "  the  ici 
fang  and  churlish  chiding  of  the  winter's  wind,"  more  trusty  counsellor» 
than  the  fawning  flattery  of  court-sycophants.  Nor  need  we  the  touching 
examples  of  Wolsey,  of  Buckingham,  of  Mary,  and  all  that  host  of  splen- 
did misery  which  history  sai)plies,  to  Avarn  us  how  sore  and  galling  ^ 
burden  is  ''  too  much  honor."  We  have  heard  with  our  ears  —  our  fa- 
thers have  told  us  —  many  of  us  are  in  the  immediate,  s.ad  experience 
that  place  and  gi-eatness,  though  fair  without,  and  full  of  temptation,  — 


864  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

are,  like  the  apples  of  Asphaltum,  but  ashes  to  the  taste ;  and  when  witk 
drawn  from  the  excitements  of  busy  life,  and  left  alone  to  reflection,  we 
are  all  ready  enough  to  exclaim  with  the  poet :  — 

"  'T  is  better  to  be  lowly  bom, 
And  range  with  huint)le  livers  in  content, 
Tlian  to  be  perked  up  in  a  Blistering  grief, 
Or  wear  a  golden  sorrow." 

But  this  is  one  of  those  fireside  reflections  which  are  apt  to  escape  us, 
in  the  bustle  of  out-of-door  life.  Vain  hope  with  all  its  specious  and 
most  plausible  cheats,  bids  us  not  take  upon  trust  so  sad  a  truth.  Am- 
bition, which  we  strive  in  vain  to  "  fling  away,"  whispers  us,  that  it  is 
nobler  to  bide  the  worst,  so  honor  be  the  stake.  To  serve  one's  country, 
is  at  least  a  glorious  martyrdom,  and  we  are  proud  to  suff^er  it.  "Were 
such  the  motive  of  those  who  enter  the  lists  of  public  life,  were  honor 
conferred  in  exact  proportion  to  merit,  and  trust  squared  with  integrity, 
this  were  a  sentiment  worthy  the  extremest  limit  of  indulgence.  A 
nobler  vocation  no  one  can  have,  —  a  more  glorious  sacrifice  was  never 
made,  —  than  to  toil  and  suffer  for  the  public  good.  Our  country's  call, 
as  it  were  the  voice  of  Fate  ci7ing  out  to  us,  should  make  "  each  pett^ 
artery  in  this  body,  as  hardy  as  the  Nemean  lion's  nerve ! "  But  is  it 
from  pure  and  disinterested  patriotism,  that  so  many  are  daily  clothed 
in  the  white  robe  of  candidacy  ?  Can  we  pretend,  even  in  this  land  of 
oromise,  that  public  honors  are  never  capriciously,  nay,  are  never  unjust- 
ty,  l)estowed  ?  We  have  not,  indeed,  here,  that  long  line  of  titled  aris- 
tocracy, "  state-statiies  only,"  whose  rank,  dating  from  the  cradle,  can  be 
founded,  at  most,  only  on  a  predestinarian  estimate  of  future  worth  ! 
We  acknowledge  neither  "  Divine  right,"  nor  "  original  compact,"  as  a 
claim  to  supremacy.  Much  less  need  we  fear  that  fhe  wise,  the  virtu- 
ous, and  the  learned  should  be  banished  from  our  land,  as  from  Sparta 
of  old,  in  very  fear  lest,  by  the  unrestrained  exertion  of  their  pernicious 
weapons^  they  should  work  out  for  themselves  an  extravagant  and  dan- 
gerous influence.  The  wise,  the  learned,  the  good,  stand  here  indeed 
their  chance  with  the  rest;  and  it  is  a  triumph  worthy  all  rejoicings 
when  they  struggle  into  power.  But  how  often  do  we  see  tliose  noble 
natures,  —  who,  seeking  merit  rather  than  fame,  Avould  scorn  to  "  flatter 
Neptune  for  his  trident,  or  Jove  for  his  power  to  thunder,"  —  cheated  of 
iheir  rightful  inheritance  of  glory !  It  cannot  be  denie<l,  though  with 
«hame  we  confess  it,  that  learning,  genius,  and  virtue,  will  strive  for  pop 
uhir  favor,  but  at  fearful  and  perilous  odds,  against  the  supple  knee,  the 
flattering  tongue,  the  cringing  soul. 

What,  then,  is  there  in  office  for  which  men  are  thus  eagerly  striving? 
What  is  this  highest  prize  of  contention,  in  pursuit  of  which,  happiness  is 
counted  as  nothing,  and  merit  is  content  to  be  pitted  against  hypocrisy 
and  intrigue  ?  It  is  called  Power.  Tlicrc  are  few  more  ludicrous 
mistakes,  which  this  erring  world  exhibits,  tlian  those  of  a  false  and 
o'crlcaping  ambition.  The  redoubted  Knight  of  la  Mancha,  though  un- 
equalled in  story,  is  not  alone  in  real  life.  We  mav,  almost  daily,  be- 
hold the  brazen  basin  of  the  barber,  borne  proudly  along,  in  all  \\s' soapy 
ixistrf,  as  if 'twere  really  the  golden  helmet  of'Mambrino!  In  most 
ponntrics,  wc  may  see  crowds,  and  even  in  our  ovm  practical  land  not  a 
few  of  those  dab1)lcrs  in  the  pettiness  of  fame,  whose  official  importance 
would  serve  only  to  remind  us  of  that  pretty  device  of  iEsop,  —  a  fly  on 
Uie  axle  of  a  chariot^  striving  to  exclaim  "  what  a  dual  do  /  raise ! "    The 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  365 

truth  is,  that  in  these  times,  and  especially  in  our  own  land,  the  power^ 
wMch  office  of  itself  confers,  is  most  specious  and  shadowy.  Even  in  the 
Old  World,  little  else  is  retained,  save  the  name,  the  show,  the  ceremony 
of  power.  In  the  most  arbiti-ary  governments  of  modern  times,  the  pop 
ular  feeling  is  respected  and  obeyed,  though  it  be  not  directly,  and  in 
terms  appealed  to.  But  with,  us,  the  very  boast  of  our  liberty  is,  that  the 
people  are  supreme.  They  indeed  do  delegate  certain  of  their  number, 
to  manage  for  them  their  great  estate  of  sovereignty :  —  but  this  delegated 
authority  is  divided  off  into  so  many  branches,  and  so  entirely  checked 
by  the  mutual  action  of  these  branches  upon  each  other,  that  the  power 
of  individual  office  is  a  mere  name  and  a  sliade.  Our  governors  are  in 
fact  but  public  servants  —  a  most  honorable,  indeed,  and  praiseworthy 
service,  but  containing  so  much  more  of  burden  and  cai-e,  than  of  powa; 
that  we  might  almost  apply  to  them  the  old  Greek  proverb,  —  "  none  in 
the  land  are  so  much  slaves,  as  its  masters.''^ 

But  if  public  station  do  not  actually  confer  power  upon  its  possessor, 
it  at  least,  affords  him  the  most  favorable  opportunity  for  gaining  it.  If 
office  be  not  greatness,  it  surely  must  be  the  highest  vantage-ground 
for  achieving  greatness.  It  was  the  answer  of  the  Delphic  oracle  to 
Cicero,  says  Plutarch,  when  he  inquired  how  he  should  attain  to  the 
highest  earthly  glory,  —  "  by  making  his  oum  genius,  and  not  the  will  of 
the  people,  the  guide  of  his  life."  To  enter  into  an  elaborate  discussion 
of  this  great  question,  would  far  exceed  our  spare  and  strict  allowance 
of  time ;  but  it  may  well  be  doubted,  whether  that  close  subjection  to 
popular  will,  that  contracted  servitude  to  party,  that  unyielding  bondage 
to  public  opinion,  which  public  officers  must  necessarily  undergo,  be  not 
far,  very  far,  from  the  pure  and  perfect  air  of  liberty,  in  which  genius 
exults  and  thrives.  It  seems,  too,  a  nobler,  as  well  as  freer,  task  to  pro 
mote  the  mental  improvement,  than  the  physical  welfare,  of  om  race,  — 
to  govern  minds,  than  to  govern  men. 

I  know  that  history,  an  honorable  mention  in  whose  pages  is,  perhaps, 
the  proudest  reward  which  mortal  merit  can  aspire  to,  has  hitherto  de- 
voted her  exclusive  praise  to  those  who  have  led  the  armies  or  guided  the 
councils  of  their  nations.  It  hath  now  been  the  diary  of  princes,  and  now 
the  "  field-book  of  conquerors,"  and  full  rarely  hath  even  the  name  of  a 
private  man,  however  splendid  his  talents  or  exalted  his  virtues,  been 
deemed  worthy  of  its  notice.  But  the  liberty,  which  has  been  here 
worked  out,  is  not  confined  to  the  mere  form  and  ceremony  of  govern- 
ment, —  it  not  only  pervades  the  whole  atmosphere,  but  penetrates  the 
very  life-breath,  and  purifies  the  very  heart's  core  of  society,  —  and  we 
may  confidently  hope,  that  the  Free  Historian  of  Free  America,  pampered 
in  no  court,  pensioned  by  no  crown,  will  pen  with  the  golden  pen  of 
Truth,  —  that  her  history  may  be,  as  all  history  ought  to  be,  —  philosophy, 
pure,  uncompromising  philosophy,  "  teaching  by  examples,"  —  a  history, 
where  crimes  may  be  mentioned  only  to  be  condemned,  —  where  virtue, 
genius,  merit,  may  stand  out  in  their  own  unfading  beauty,  the  admiration 
and  the  model  of  the  world !  We  would  not,  indeed,  withhold  their 
merited  tribute  of  praise,  their  proud  recompense  of  glory,  from  the 
"  patriots  who  have  toiled  and  in  their  country's  cause  bled  nobly."  The 
sweet  lyre,  the  sculptured  marble,  shall  have  their  names  in  holy  keep- 
ing !  But  they  are  not  alone  patriots.  This  proud  title  of  patriotism  is  ro 
narrow  distinction  of  birth  or. of  fo  'tune.  Whoever  promotes,  or  labors 
to  promote,  the  interest  and  welfare  of  his  country,  be  his  means  never  eo 

31* 


366  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Braall,  his  vocation  never  so  humble,  is  a  patriot.  They  are  patriots  who 
obey  and  defend,  as  well  as  they  who  make  the  laws.  They  are  patriots 
who  strive,  as  they  are  able,  to  advance  in  the  land  the  great  cause  of  re- 
ligion, of  justice,  of  public  improvement.  Every  good  man  is  a  patriot  1 
Tliey  were  patriots,  wliose  names  shall  hereafter  be  mentioned  as  the 
founders  and  benefactors  of  this  venerable  institution.  He*  is  a  patriot, 
And  worthy  a  patriot's  praise,  whose  wonted  presence  at  the  head  of  our 
University,  on  tliis  high  festival  of  letters,  we  may  no  longer  look  for.  If 
the  youth  of  our  land  be  its  hope  and  its  promise,  as  their  fathers  are  ita 
etrcngth  and  its  support,  —  surely  he  shall  have  rendered  a  goodly  and 
an  acceptable  service  to  his  countr}-,  who  by  his  diligence,  his  instructions, 
his  example,  has  trained  up  so  many  to  her  duties  and  her  honor.  We 
would  yield  liim,  then,  the  glory  of  a  patriot,  as  well  as  the  atFectionate 
thanks  of  grateful  hearts,  for  all  that  he  has  done  and  suffered  in  the 
cause  of  education.  His  is  a  glory,  "  cui  neque  pro/uit  quisquam  laudando, 
neque  vituperando  quisquam  nocuity  May  he  live  long,  to  see  this  ancient 
abode  of  science,  —  the  fond  object  of  his  care  and  love,  —  increased  in 
usefulness  and  power ;  standing  in  all  the  strength  of  sound  wisdom,  in 
all  the  majesty  of  virtue,  in  all  the  beauty  of  holiness,  a  blessing  to  the 
■ihildrcn,  and  an  honor  to  the  fathers  of  our  land ;  and  on  its  brightest 
tablet  of  record,  among  its  best  defenders,  shall  his  name  and  his  praise 
Oe  ever  inscribed.  May  his  years  to  come  be  full  of  comfort,  and  his 
;nd  —  peace ! 

It  is  one  of  the  peculiar  features  of  our  republican  government,  that  the 
ioors  of  office,  —  which  have  hitherto  been  rarely  entered,  but  by  those 
who  could  produce  the  passports  of  high  birth  or  princely  patronage,  — 
are  here  thrown  open  to  all.  The  natural  consequence  is,  that  all  are 
eager  to  rush  in.  Imagination  nas  pictured  to  us  this  exclusive  abode, 
abundant  in  all  the  luxury  and  splendor  of  Oriental  magnificence ;  and 
the  prince  of  Abyssinia  felt  not  more  longings,  —  and,  I  venture  to  say, 
trim  not  more  expedients,  to  gain  a  knov/ledge  and  a  view  of  the  outer 
world  of  m.-in,  than  we  to  gain  admittance  into  this  favored  palace  of  the 
Blest.  We  do  not  fear,  with  the  enemies  of  liberty,  that  this  "  political 
ambition  "  will  always  prove  a  canker  in  the  hearts,  or  engender  corrup- 
tion in  the  minds  of  our  people,  —  warring  against  the  interests  of  litera- 
ture, and  bringing  down  upon  us  cither  the  darkness  of  anarcliy  or  the 
more  gloomy  liglit  of  des])otism.  We  neither  feel,  nor  feign,  any  such 
idle  apprehensions.  We  have  seen  tlie  Hood-gates  of  ocean  suddenly  un- 
barred, and  tliongh  the  dusliing  waves  leaped  never  so  violently  in  devouring 
nil  they  mot,  —  it  was  but  for  a  moment ;  the  waters  flowed  again  into  their 
channel,  and  the  sea  was  still.  But  ilion<^h  this  temporary  evil  will  ulti- 
mately be  its  own  cure,  it  is  well  that  all  means  should  be  employed  to 
diminish  its  immediate  violence.  The  storm  has  not  yet  ceased  —  we  may, 
even  now,  see  it,  in  all  the  strength  of  its  rage,  fearfully  agitating  our  land. 
The  holy  ark  of  our  liberties  is,  even  now,  tossed  on  its'angry  l)osom  !  It  is 
time  that  men's  eyes  were  opened  to  reason.  It  is  time  that  they  looked 
upon  office  as  it  really  is ;  like  the  other  professions  of  life,  a  place  of  hon- 
orable labor,  confemnc;  on  its  possessor  no  absolute  superiority,  —  no  ex- 
clusive privilege, —  no  peculiar  blessedness;  —  an  elevation  whei-e  one's 
ftiilings,  as  well  as  excellences,  arc  displayed  to  a  dangerous  advantage. 
We  would  render  to  the  rtllcrs  and  counselloi-s  of  our  land  all  the  respect 

*  Dr.  Kirkland,  who  had  recently  retired  from  the  University. 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  36/ 

and  homage  that  are  their  due ;  but  we  will  not  yield  up  to  them  the  sole 
possession  of  that  power  —  the  only  power  worth  having  —  the  highest 
power  of  man  —  a  power  which  angels  from  all  then-  glory  might  stoop  to 
enjoy —  the  power  of  doing  good  to  mankind  —  of  serving  one's  country  — 
of  improving  our  race  —  of  ennobling  our  age !  This  is  the  power  which 
all  may  possess  —  which  requires  no  passport  but  of  Heaven.  This  is 
the  promotion  which  "  cometh  neither  from  the  East,  from  the  West,  nor 
yet  from  the  South."  Mind  asks  not  the  seal  of  office  for  a  sanction  of 
its  dictates,  "  nee  sumit  aid  ponit  secures  arbitrio  popularis  aurce."  Its  course 
will  on,  the  way  it  takes,  "  cracking  ten  thousand  curbs  of  more  strong 
link  asunder,"  than  the  slender  impediments  of  artificial  society.  It  will 
^eak  out^  wherever  it  exists,  in  tones  than  which  God's  thunder  is  nci 
more  audible! 

To  this  power  and  this  greatness  let  us  aspire.  Let  the  education  and 
im})rovement  of  mind  be  the  first  object  of  our  ambition.  Let  not  the 
great  harvest  of  our  literature  lie  longer  unreaped.  Our  dizzy  mountain- 
peaks  —  our  green  hills  —  our  fertile  vales  —  our  thundering  cataracts  — 
our  pleasant  streams,  were  never  made  for  sealed  lips.  Our  fii-m  hands, 
our  brave  hearts,  our  bright  eyes,  though  eloquent  in  silence,  deserve  not 
a  mute  lyre.  The  fair  brow  of  Liberty  looks  bald  and  naked  without  the 
laurel  of  the  Muse  ! 

Example  2. 

THE    UTILITARIAN    SYSTEM.  *' 

"Cui  Bono." 

The  spirit  of  the  present  strongly  demands  the  tisefid  in  all  its  objects  of 
pursuit;  there  is  little  reason  to  fear  that  men  will  neglect  their  interests, 
so  far  as  their  judgment  enables  them  to  perceive  them;  for  little  occupies 
general  attention  that  does  not  return  some  plausible  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion, "  Of  what  use  is  it  ?  what  advantage  arises  from  it  ?  "  The  wild 
visions  conjured  up  by  the  heated  imaginations  of  other  times,  are  all 
viewed  through  this  correcting  medium,  and  stripped  of  all  their  bright  and 
deceptive  colors,  are  stamped  with  that  value  only  to  which  their  ntility 
entitles  them.  The  lance  of  chivalry  rusts  in  obscurity  and  neglect,  while 
the  ploughshare  is  bright  with  honorable  use  ;  the  venerable  castle,  moss- 
covered  and  shattered  by  the  storms  of  a  thousand  years,  is  of  small  conse- 
quence, as  it  stands  beside  the  smart,  new-built  manufactory,  its  neighbor, 
whence  some  of  the  conveniences  and  comforts  of  life  are  constantly  flow- 
ing ;  the  mountain,  though  it  be  the  highest  peak  of  the  Alps,  or  Andes, 
cloud-capt,  and  snow-crowned,  towering  sublime  over  the  domains  be- 
neath, the  theme  of  poets,  and  the  resting-place  of  the  imagination,  is 
thought  little  of  in  comparison  with  the  dark  and  gloomy  mine  at  its  base, 
whence  are  drawn  the  ore  for  manufactui-e,  or  the  coal  with  which  it  »8 
prepared. 

All  things  are  estimated,  not  at  the  price  set  upon  them  by  the  children 
of  poetry  and  romance,  but  according  to  their  immediate  subserviency  in 
rendering  comfortable  the  condition  of  the  great  majority  of  mankind 
And  shall  any  one  say  that  there  is  not  much  true  philosophy  in  this  valu 
ati^n  ?  Shall  any  one  sigh  over  the  tendency  of  the  age  to  look  with  a 
di-iassionate  eye  on  those  wild  schemes,  and  false  ideas  of  honor  an** 

*  On  taking  the  First  Degree. 


368  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITIOIC. 

greatness,  which  in  former  times  caused  such  a  waste  of  human  life  and 
means  ?    Shall  any  one  for  this  denounce  the  times  as  forgetful  of  all  that 
constitutes  excellence  or  happiness  ?   Shall  it  be  said  that  this  spirit  neces 
sarily  smothers  all  the  nobler  parts  of  man's  nature,  and  reduces  him  to  a 
mere  pains-taking,  money-getting  animal  ?     That  it  is  incapable  of  being 
turned  and  guided  into  any  good  course,  and  of  forming  the  groundwork  of 
a  better  state  of  things  than  tne  world  has  ever  yet  seen  ?   Such  desponding 
minds,  —  such  prophets  of  evil,  must  have  got  their  ideas  of  the  summiim 
bonum  from  tales  of  chivalry  and  romance,  from  the  dreams  and  longings 
of  a  heated  imagination,  from  any  thing,  in  fact,  rather  than  a  comparison 
of  the  sources  of  happiness  in  the  present  and  any  former  time.     Should 
such  an  examination  oe  made,  that  which  appears  so  bright  and  enchant- 
ing when  viewed  from  a  distance,  will  hardly  bear  a  close  inspection. 
Strip  these  bright  visions  of  all  the  radiance  thrown  around  them  by  the 
charms  of  an  elegant  literature,  and  how  meagre  do  they  stand  before  us, 
m  all  the  harsh  outline  of  a  rude  and  unpolished  nature  ;  the  violent  pas 
sions  and  harsh  impulses  of  men  stand  forth,  divested  of  that  softening  in 
fluence  thrown  upon  them  by  a  refined  civilization.     The  courage  of  the 
warrior  will  shrink  to  the  level  of  mere  animal  violence  ;  the  beauty  of  the 
ladies  will  pall  upon  the  imagination,  when  it  is  considered  how  uninterest 
ing  must  have  been  their  minds  from  the  want  of  all  those  graces  and  re 
finements  which  a  more  enlightened  age  only  can  impart ;  while  through 
out  all  classes  the  powers  of  the  intellect  were  but  imperfectly  developed, 
and  give  us  no  very  exalted  idea  of  man  and  his  powers.     Let  these  things 
be  but  once  thought  of  in  such  an  abstract  way,  separated  from  all  the 
bright  associations  that  are  usually  wound  about  them,  and  the  most  en 
thusiastic  admirer  of  antiquity  will  hardly  wish  that  his  lot  had  been  cast 
in  any  of  those  periods  that  once  seemed  so  delightful. 

But  though  the  present  estimate  of  utility  be  on  the  whole  so  correct,  is 
tliere  nothing  in  it  that  maybe  cause  of  disgust  to  those  of  delicate  feelings, 
and  at  the  same  time  injurious  to  our  truest,  best-defined  interests  ?  None 
but  the  most  unhesitating,  undiscriminating  panegyrist  would  attempt  to 
deny  it.  In  their  endeavors  to  reduce  every  thing"  to  the  standard  of  the 
useful,  many  have  overstepped  the  limit.  In  their  zeal  to  do  away  with 
all  old  follies,  they  cast  off  with  them  some  of  those  virtues  which  are  pe 
culiar  to  no  age  or  state  of  society,  but  whose  seat  is  deep  in  the  human 
heart,  and  whose  free  exercise  is  indispensable  to  the  prosperous  continu 
ance  of  any  state  or  order  of  things ;  connecting  these  with  the  really 
worthless  objects,  with  which  they  are  so  often  associated,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  eradicating  all  the  useless  weeds  from  the  soil  of  humanity,  they 
ruthlessly  tear  up  some  of  the  most  beautiful  flowers  in  the  gardens  of  the 
heart ;  they  crush  those  buds  that  would  expand,  and  blossom,  and  bear 

f[ood  fruit ;  that  would  exalt  and  purify,  and  refine  life,  and  go  far  to  rea 
ize  man's  imagined  perfections. 

We  may  see  some  signs  of  such  a  spirit,  in  that  tone  of  superior  wisdom 
that  would  repress  all  the  outbreakings  of  enthusiasm,  and  damp  the  ardor 
of  the  grateful  heart  in  its  admiration  of  the  beautiful  and  noble,  with  a  sar- 
castic and  solf-conccitcd  manner  of  asking  the  question.  What  use  ?  And 
if  the  object  of  this  harsh  ridicule  cannot  show  some  direct  and  visible  o^>e- 
ration  of  the  ideas  and  sentiments  he  admires,  it  warns  him  to  be  advised 
by  experience,  and  to  have  done  with  all  such  foolish  and  romantic  notions, 
which  will  only  impede  his  successful  progress  in  the  world ;  that  is,  drop 
all  that  characterizes  the  man  of  feeling  and  sentiment,  and  retain  nothing 
but  the  most  esteemod  maxims  of  a  selt-wise  and  selfish  experience.  Such 
a  spirit  would  look  upon  this  fair  earth  merely  as  one  great  fann,  intended 
only  to  maintain  its  numberless  denizens  by  its  productive  powers;  it 
would  p-udge  every  acre  not  devoted  to  this  purpose ;  it  would  look  with 
an  invidious  eye  upon  lakes  and  mountains  as  useless  incumbrances;  in 
the  pleasant  light  of  heaven,  and  the  blowing  of  its  breezes,  it  would  recxwj 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  36& 

nize  only  the  means  to  promote  vegetation,  and  bring  the  harvest  to  ma 
tarity ;  men  it  would  regard  as  mere  instruments  in  these  great  operations 
as  bound  to  their  country,  and  to  each  other,  by  no  stronger  ties,  no  better 
feelings  than  a  low  and  selfish  interest ;  to  it  all  else  seems  superfluous  :  all 
the  glorious  and  beautiful,  and  all  the  touching  and  delicate,  of  the  natural 
and  moral  world,  are  unvalued  and  uncared  for.  Though  this  false  estimate 
be  but  too  common,  the  mind  that  has  not  been  subjected  to  it  must  revolt 
at  its  dictates.  What !  must  all  the  refreshing  gardens  and  pleasant  walkg 
9f  life  be  shut,  all  its  delightful  prospects  obstructed,  and  all  the  gushing 
streams  of  the  heart  be  sealed  up  !  Could  any  one  urge  this  in  serious  ar- 
gument, no  more  concise  and  appropriate  answer  could  be  given  him,  than 
the  decision  of  the  Creator  himself  upon  the  works  of  his  hand,  —  that  they 
are  good,  all  good. 

But,  to  such  contemners  of  all  that  soars  above  their  own  limited  vision, 
the  use  of  argument  seems  altogether  superfluous ;  there  are  certain  epithets 
to  which  no  definite  meaning  is  attached,  but  which,  when  applied  with  a 
certain  manner  of  sarcasm  or  ridicule,  do  more  to  injure  their  object,  than 
the  most  direct  and  severe  crimination :  there  is  a  vagueness  about  them 
that  gives  the  imagination  room  to  conjure  up  a  thousand  bad  qualities,  and 
apply  them  to  whatever  is  the  subject  of  obloquy.  Of  this  nature  is  the 
epithet  romantic^  so  frequently  and  indiscriminately  applied  to  all  the  im 
pulses  which  fill  the  breasts  of  those  Avho  have  not  lost  all  the  warmth  and 
generosity  given  them  by  nature ;  who  are  excited  with  a  noble  ardor  at 
the  mention  of  great  examples  of  virtu  ■)  or  heroism ;  who  can  see  and  feel 
the  sublime  and  beautiful  in  nature  and  in  character ;  who  can  kindle  with 
love,  swell  with  pity,  or  weep  in  sympathy  with  another's  woes  ;  they  are 
told  that  all  these  things  wilt  not  do  in  the  world;  that  they  are  only  found  in 
silly  novels  ;  in  fact,  that  they  are  all  together  too  romantic.  The  tendency 
of  this  spirit  is  to  make  the  young  distrust  their  own  feelings,  and  anxious 
to  suppress  every  word  and  action  that  might  come  within  the  reach  of 
this  far-sweeping  romantic  ;  restraint  and  affected  indifference  become  but 
too  fashionable,  even  among  those  who  are  formed  for  better  things ;  their 
fetters,  early  and  long-worn,  at  length  cease  to  gall,  and  the  man  of  a  once 
warm  heart  and  strong  affections,  becomes  a  frigid  and  unimpassioned 
thing,  whose  impulses  are  all  of  the  lowest,  commonest  description.  But 
is  it  really  so  ?  Is  there  any  danger  in  giving  way  to  any  of  those  emotions 
which  are  so  enchanting  in  the  page  of  poetry  or  romance  ?  Are  they 
really  incompatible  with  those  necessary  duties  which  are  allotted  to  most 
men  in  the  common  routine  of  life  and  occupation  ?  Must  we  risk  all  those 
bright  visions  of  life,  enlivened  and  ennobled  by  the  exercise  of  those  finer 
feelings  we  love  so  to  dwell  upon  ?  In  fine,  are  they  all  of  no  use  7  Let 
the  anxious  inquirer  look  around,  and  mark  the  operation  of  some  of  those 
sentiments  so  harshly  condemned  as  romantic  and  useless. 

Is  that  feeling  useless  which  entwines  a  love  of  his  native  land  with  every 
5bre  of  a  man's  heart  ?  Which  m'akes  him  look  upon  her  mountains  and 
l-zlains,  her  rivers  and  lakes,  or  her  rock-bound,  sea-washed  coast,  with  an 
mdescribable,  and  almost  superstitious  veneration  ?  Shall  all  those  associ 
ations  which  make  a  man  look  upon  his  country  as  something  more  than 
go  much  land  inhabited  by  so  many  proprietors,  whom  convenience  has  led 
to  form  themselves  into  an  organized,  political  body,  be  laughed  at,  as  the 
relic  of  a  bygone,  barbarous  age ;  as  too  romantic  to  be  indulged  even  for  a 
moment  ?  Shall  that  enthusiasm  which  leads  the  traveller,  weary  of  wan- 
dering, and  longing  for  home,  on  beholding  the  rocks  and  clifl's  of  his  native 
shore,  to  exclaim  with  rapturous  joy, —  "  This  is  my  own,  my  native  land," 
—  be  ridiculed  as  the  expression  "of  nothing  but  a  mawkish,  and  false  sen« 
sibility  ?  On  the  contrary,  is  not  such  a  feeling  the  foundation  of  that  true 
and  real  patriotism^  which  makes  a  man  lay  down  wealth  and  comfort,  and 
pour  forth  blood  like  water  for  his  country's  good  ?  Has  it  not  been  the 
all-pervading  sentiment  in  those  mai-tyrs  and  patriots  whom  history  and 


370  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

fiction  oqually  delight  in  honoring  ?  Should  we  make  Thermopylae  ana 
Marathon  familiar  as  household  words,  had  there  not  been  some  stronger 
impulse  in  the  breasts  of  the  heroes  who  fought  there  than  the  mere  desire 
to  save  their  lands  and  property  from  unjust  spoliation  ?  Interest,  or  fic- 
tion, may,  for  a  time,  excite  men  to  action  in  behalf  of  their  country ;  but, 
to  arouse  the  undying  flame  of  patriotism,  to  make  such  lovers  of  their 
country  as  time  has  shown,  the  "  caritas  ipsius  soli,"  the  clinging  to  all  the 
marks  written  in  memory  by  affection,  the  scenes  of  our  youth,  the  nionu 
meiits  and  undying  histoiy  of  our  ancestors,  our  heartiistones,  aiKl  objects 
of  domestic  aflection,  must  all  work  together  in  a  manner  none  the  less  ef 
fective,  because  it  cannot  be  reduced  to  the  cold  and  exact  rules  of  states- 
men or  philosophers. 

Is  that  love  useless  which  exalts  so  high  in  man's  judgment  the  worth  of 
the  fairer,  softer  portion  of  his  race  ;  that  takes  away  so  much  of  the  harsh 
and  low  from  his  character,  and  makes  him  see  every  thin^  in  a  wanner 
purer  light.  Or  are  any  of  those  other  tender  feelings,  which  purify  his 
character,  and  make  him  somewhat  like  the  divine  original  ?  Equally  harsh 
and  false  is  that  estimate  that  would  say  so  j  which  would  divest  lif*e  of  so 
much  that  softens  its  hard  and  rugged  track ;  which  would  stop  all  those 
fonntains  ^shing  fresh  from  the  heart,  which  sweeten  and  quicken  the 
otherwise  insipid  and  sluggish  course  of  duties  and  labors.  And  yet  such 
fl  disposition  is  but  too  common ;  it  hears  with  incredulity  of  the  existence 
of  virtuous  enthusiasm,  or  ardent  love ;  or,  if  it  cannot  doubt  their  exist- 
ence, it  shows  its  contempt  for  them  by  a  freezing  interrogatory  as  to  their 
advantage  ;  it  would  connne  all  such  romantic  feelings  to  the  pages  of  the 
poet  or  novelist,  who,  it  thinks,  first  gave  them  birth,  and  insists,  that  how- 
ever well  they  may  do  to  "  point  a  moral,  or  adorn  a  tale,"  they  will  never 
do  in  real  life. 

If  such  were  real  life,  if  none  of  the  holiest  and  best  aflFections  could  be 
indulged  with  safety,  well  might  the  gloomy  views  of  those  be  entertained, 
who  look  upon  the  pleasant  world  as  a  succession  of  empty  nothings,  and 
all  our  boasted  improvements  and  advancements  as  only  tending  to  render 
them  lighter  and  more  empty,  and  to  remove  us  farther  from  all  tliat  makes 
life  worth  the  having. 

Such  a  feeling  of  discontent,  as  it  is  particularly  apt  to  seize  upon  minds 
most  delicately  tuned  by  nature,  must  have  an  injurious  efiect  upon  the 
age,  which  has  been  represented  as,  on  the  whole,  so  discriminating  as  to 
what  is  truly  good  and  useful ;  since  it  withdraws  from  exerting  a  health 
ful  influence  those  whoso  natural  impulses  would  cause  them  to  promote 
its  best  interests  ;  but,  disgusted  by  the  false,  utilitarian  spirit  just  dwelt 
upon,  their  minds  sink  into  a  morbid  and  repini|>g  state,  which  questions 
if  there  be  any  thing  pleasant,  or  excellent,  contents  itself  with  railiug  a 
all  around,  and  nursing  its  own  misanthropic  feeling. 

How,  then,  shall  we  answer  that  cold  and  sarcastic  temper,  whichj  in  a. 
fho  confidence  of  superior  wisdom,  thinks  to  crush  all  the  generous  impul 
ees  of  an  ardent  nature,  the  aspirations  of  genius,  or  the  buddings  oi  an 
unfeigned  love,  or  strong  attachment,  by  a  witiiering  manner  of  asking  the 
question.  Of  what  use  are  ail  these?  We  might  answer  with  another  ques 
tion ;  Of  what  use  is  the  pleasant  light  of  the  sun  ?  For,  not  more  groping, 
cold,  and  melancholy,  would  be  an  eternal,  sunless  night,  than  life  witliout 
one  ray  of  those  warmer  feelings  to  illumine  its  dark  and  tortuous  paths, 
to  ffild  the  points  of  all  the  sterner,  harsher  duties,  and  cast  a  warm*  flush 
of  nappinoss  over  all  its  varying  scenes.  We  might  toll  them,  that,  banish 
these,  and  the  world  would  be  a  desert  of  so  hai-sh  and  uninteresting  an  as- 
pect, that  the  most  stoical  natience  could  lOt  endure  it  long;  and,  if  their 
unsyinpathizing  minds  could  not  comprehend  how  this  might  be,  we  might 
tell  them  tliat  to  the  feelings  thev  so  much  despise  they  are  indebted  for 
the  continuance  of  that  state  of  tilings  which  appears  to  them  so  profita- 
ble and  excellent.    That  they  are  the  great  corner-stones  on  which  society 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  371 

IS  founded,  the  bonds  that  maintain  its  union ;  that,  but  for  some  of  th« 
enthusiasm  they  so  much  condemn,  civilization  would  long  since  have  stop- 
ped in  its  progress,  the  arts  and  knowledge  would  have  remained  undevel- 
oped, and  all  that  tends  to  exalt  and  refine  man's  condition  would  still  have 
slumbered.  If  they  cannot  be  induced  by  this  to  acknowledge  that  thert> 
are  any  others  but  their  own  beaten  highways  of  life,  they  must  remain  in 
ignorance  of  all  its  better  part,  forfeit  all  the  enjoyments  which  accrue  to 
those  who  can  rightly  estimate  its  blessings,  and  plod  on  in  the  way  they 
have  chosen  for  themselves ;  —  while,  to  those  who  have  an  undimmed  per 
ception  of  the  good  and  lovely,  life  spreads  itself  out  like  a  verdant  flowery 
field,  its  paths  enlivened  by  the  bordering  green,  the  gemming  dewdrops 
not  yet  dashed  from  its  flowerets,  and  all  beyond  a  vista  of  gladness  and 
beauty.  Happy  those  who  choose  this  better  portion,  and  enjoy  that  reai 
life  which  those  only  can  have,  who,  in  all  their  estimates  of  use,  are  guided 
by  that  true  philosophy,  which,  while  it  hastens  the  step  of  improvement, 
does  not  prevent  the  cooperation  of  our  best  nature  ! 

Example  3. 
Public  Opinion.* 

On  the  return  of  this  ancient  anniversary,  on  this  academical  jubilee, 
■wbicli  borrows  all  its  lustre  from  the  countenance  of  a  great  community,  I 
am  naturally  led  to  the  contemplation  of  the  power  of  a  community.  It  is 
public  favor  which  has  raised  a  humble  grammar  school  into  the  greatest 
collegiate  establishment  in  our  land.  And  we  who  are  come  up  this  day  to 
make  our  last  obeisance  to  our  venerable  parent,  cannot  consider  without 
interest,  that  power  out  of  which  she  sprang,  and  that  power  upon  whose 
character  our  own  fortunes  must  so  much  depend. 

But  the  growth  of  a  literary  seminary  is  but  an  exhibition  in  miniature 
of  that  force  of  which  I  speak.  Compared  with  some  of  its  greater  mani 
festations,  it  is  the  application  of  the  force  of  steam  to  the  cutting  of  dia 
monds,  or  the  enchasing  of  plate.  It  is  on  the  spacious  stage  of  history, 
where  ages  are  the  time,  and  nations  the  actors;  that  I  find  the  just  exam 
pies  of  the  power  of  public  opinion  emblazoned.  What  is  the  great  lesson 
we  learn  from  the  records  of  our  race  ?  What  but  this  ?  That  the  true 
sovereign  of  the  world,  the  only  monarch  who  is  never  deposed,  and  never 
abridged  of  his  prerogative, 

"  Who  sits  on  no  precarious  throne, 
Nor  borrows  leave  to  be," 
is  Public  Opinion. 

What  is  a  throne  ?  What  is  a  legislature  ?  What  is  a  Congress  ?  What 
is  a  constitution  ?  Mere  pipes,  mere  mouth  pieces,  for  the  es^pression  of 
Public  Opinion.  The  moment  they  cease  to  give  it  vent,  the  moment  they 
resist  and  set  up  foi  original  powers,  it  breaks  in  pieces  these  venerable 
forms,  as  Daniel  broke  the  gilded  images  of  Babylonish  idolatry,  and  holds 
up  the  fragments  before  the  startled  nations,  with  the  same  dreadful  irony, 
—  "  Lo,  these  be  the  gods  ye  worship." 

One  would  think,  from  what  has  sometimes  been  advanced,  on  great  au- 
thority, that  Public  Opinion  was  a  new  power.  I  am  confident  that  it  is  a 
mistake.  Public  Opinion  is  no  new  creation,  no  stranger  in  the  world,  no 
child  of  its  old  age.  It  has  mingled  in  the  public  aff"airs  since  man  first 
exchanged  his  cave  in  the  woods  for  the  arts  and  alliances  of  civilized  life. 

Born  in  the  primeval  conventions  of  uncouth  savages,  its  infant  fingers 
trace  that  social  contract  to  which  the  proud  monarchies  of  the  Old  World 

*  On  taking  the  first  degree. 


372  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

are  not  ashamed  to  go  back  for  the  fabulous  charter  of  their  leffitimacr. 
And  from  that  hour  it  has  gone  about  among  the  kingd(ims  of  the  earth, 
working  its  pleasure,  whether  for  good  or  for  evil.  You  may  track  its  lion 
step  across  the  Syrian  sands,  when  it  led  the  fanatic  hosts  of  Christendom 
to  pour  out  their  libations  of  blood,  and  sacrifice  their  human  hecatombs, 
in  pious  worship  of  the  Prince  of  Peace.  Or  you  may  find  its  handiwork 
in  modem  England,  when  it  spoiled  of  its  crown  the  miworthy  successor 
of  a  line  of  kings ;  washed  away  his  balm,  and  laid  his  head  upon  the 
block ;  turned  loose  an  incensed  people  to  hunt  down  the  remnant  of  that 
old  house  of  tyrants,  and  purge  the  realm  of  their  unclean  influence.  But, 
by  and  by,  as  if  in  very  wantonness,  reverting  to  its  ancient  faith  and  af- 
fections, it  recalls  the  fugitive  princes  from  their  exile,  and  rebuilds  the 
dynasty  it  had  overturned. 

But/if  the  will  of  the  people  has  always  been  the  sovereign,  under  what 
ever  forms  it  has  been  disguised,  by  whatever  ministers  it  has  exercised 
the  functions  of  sovereignty,  it  will  be  asked,  how  are  we  to  explain  certain 
dark  passages  of  the  history  of  man  ?  If  the  people  have  been  really  the 
master,  whence  came  those  odious  institutions  which  have  preyed  from  age 
to  age,  like  an  hereditary  disease,  on  the  aggrieved  nations  ?  How  stole  tfte 
serpent  into  the  Eden  of  democracy  ?  In  what  chamber  of  the  people's 
deputies,  was  the  order  of  knighthood  created  ?  What  bill  of  rights  was  it 
that  stipulated  for  the  inviolability  of  the  Canon  and  Feudal  Law  ?  What 
date  do  the  articles  of  abdication  bear,  wherein  the  major  portion  of  man 
kind,  wearied  with  the  cares  of  government,  resign  their  irksome  state,  and 
sell  themselves  for  slaves  to  their  fellow-men  ?  Where  was  the  popular  aa- 
•embly  conv«.red,  which  followed  up  the  splendid  distinctions  of  chivalry 
in  Europe,  with  the  emoluments  and  honors  of  modern  aristocracy ;  "  gild 
ing  a  little  that  was  rich  before,"  and  lavishing  on  an  overgrown  peerage 
civil  immunities,  and  injurious  monopolies  ?  If  Public  Opinion  is  supreme, 
how  came  in  those  abuses  which  plunder  the  many  of  wealtli,  and  honor 
and  freedom,  to  lay  the  costly  spoils  at  the  feet  of  a  few  ?  Crowns,  prin 
cipalities,  and  orders  of  nobility,  —  are  these  the  trophies  with  which  rub 

lie  Opinion  has  strown  its  path  ? Yes.    Even  these  were  called 

into  being  by  the  word  of  the  people.  And  all  those  political  evils  which 
have  plagued  the  suffering  race  of  men,  first  sprung  into  life  at  the  will  of 
the  neople,  and  received  at  its  own  hand  their  bloody  commission ;  like 
fienas  raised  by  the  enchanter,  whom  tliey  will  shortly  tonnent.  Folly 
was  the  disease  of  which  Public  Opinion  was  sorely  sick ;  Ignorance  was 
the  deadly  charm  by  which  it  was  hound ;  and  is  it  strange  that  it  lay 
powerless  along  the  land,  the  victim  of  petty  tyranny  ?  It  was  only  Sam 
son  submitting  his  invincible  locks  to  be  confined  by  the  fingers  of  Delilah 
with  the  pm  of  a  weaver's  beam.  And  Oh,  how  faithfully  the  old  patri- 
arch t<ild  its  history,  when  ho  pmphesicd  the  fortunes  of  his  unwortliy  child  I 
•'Issnchar  is  a  strong  ass,  couching  down  between  two  burdens;  and  he 
8aw  that  rest  was  good,  and  the  land,  that  it  was  jilcasant,  and  he  bowed 
his  shoulder  to  l)car,  and  became  a  servant  to  tribute." 

But  these  scjwons  of  patient  suftcrance  do  not  always  last.  And  long 
periods  of  torpid  quiescence  are  succeeded  by  awful  reactions.  It  is  thia 
moment  when  Public  Opinion  changes,  —  this  turning  of  the  tide,  —  that  is 
the  sublime  moment  in  the  annals  of  nations. 

"  It«  stop  Is  as  the  troftd 
Of  a  flood  that  leaves  Its  bod, 
And  its  marcli  it  Is  rudo  desolation." 

It  bursts  thTouf^h  the  monnds  and  levies  that  dammed  it  np,  and  strikes 
'error  into  ancient  societies,  and  institutions  tliat  lie  peaccruUy  over  the 
land,  by  the  roar  of  the  inundation.  It  is  when  great  events  are  pending, 
when  tlie  scales  of  human  destiny  are  hung  out  in  heaven,  and  the  eyes  of 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  373 

men  grow  dim  with  watching  the  doubtful  balance,  —  when  old  systems 
fail,  and  old  principles  are  a  by- word,  —  when  the  strong  attractions  which 
keep  society  in  its  orbit  are  dissolved,  and  the  winds  of  Fassion  go  sighing 
by,  —  it  is  then  that  Public  Opinion  re-collects  itself  to  meet  the  solemn 
emergency ;  leaving  its  ancient  seats,  it  shakes  off  the  dust  of  centuries, 
and  can'ies  the  hxunan  race  forward  to  the  mark  they  are  prepared  to  reach 

It  was  in  a  crisis  hke  this,  that  the  keys  of  heaven  were  wrested  from 
the  successors  of  St.  Peter,  and  the  light  of  the  Eeformation  let  in  upon  a 
mourning  church.  And  when  the  clearer  light  of  another  age  revealed  t!ie 
abuses  still  unreformed,  Public  Opinion  invaded  once  more  the  ground  that 
was  fenced  with  ecclesiastical  interdictions,  continued  the  heroic  work,  and 
finally  launched  its  little  fleet  of  pilgrims  on  the  main,  to  follow  the  setting 
Bun,  and  lodge  the  floating  ark  on  the  mountains  of  a  New  World. 

And  here  in  the  West,  it  is  at  the  bidding  of  Public  Opinion,  that  Liber 
ty  has  unrolled  the  sky  of  half  the  globe,  for  her  star  spangled  banner.  It 
is  at  the  same  high  mandate,  that  Science  throws  across  our  rushing  streams 
her  triumphant  arches ;  yokes  together  with  a  Cyclopean  architecture  the 
everlasting  hills,  and  then  leads  over  their  giddy  summits  the  peaceful  car 
avans  of  commerce. 

But,  with  all  its  splendid  triumphs,  it  is  still  an  unsteadfast  and  turbulent 
principle,  as  inconstant  as  an  individual  mind.  And  the  annals  of  our  race 
are  but  accusing  records,  which  show  how  Public  Opinion  has  given  its 
voluntary  and  omnipotent  sanction  to  every  foi-m  of  crime.  It  has  crossed 
great  enterprises,  and  broken  brave  hearts.  It  has  doomed  to  the  faggot 
and  the  rack  the  champions  of  truth,  and  the  children  of  God.  It  is  as 
much  the  parent  of  the  Holy  Inquisition,  and  the  Court  of  the  Star-Cham- 
ber,  as  of  Bible  Societies,  or  the  Koyal  Academy. 

What,  then,  is  our  security  ?  Can  we  rear  no  bulwark  ?  Can  we  dig  no 
trench  around  our  noblest  and  most  venerable  establishments  of  Church 
and  State  ?  Are  we  all  embarked  in  a  frail  vessel,  and  may  this  blind 
Polyphemus  sink  us  at  pleasure  with  a  swing  of  his  arm  ?  Where  is  the 
origin  of  Public  Opinion  ?  It  is  in  private  opinion.  Each  great  national 
feehng,  wave  after  wave,  has  been  first  the  opinion  of  a  few,  the  opinion  of 
one.  Here,  then,  is  the  great  check,  and  safeguard,  and  regulator,  in  indi 
vidual  character  and  influence.  Obviously,  no  external  force  can  act  on 
the  all-surrounding  energy  of  a  public  mind.  In  vain  would  we  plant  sen- 
tries, or  patrol  a  watch  about  this  unmastered  power.  The  way  to  explode 
a  magazine  is  to  apply  the  match  to  a  kernel.  The  way  to  move  the  pub- 
lic, is  to  affect  individuals.  Every  honest  citizen  whom  we  can  enlighten  ; 
every  mind  throughout  the  nation,  by  which  right  views  are  entertained, 
and  proper  feelings  cherished,  is  one  more  improver  of  Public  Opinion. 

Let  it  be  deeply  considered  by  us,  since  it  thus  originated,  how  much 
every  superior  understanding  is  its  natural  counsellor  and  guide ;  and  to 
what  extent  such  men  as  Swift,  Burke,  and  Mirabeau  were  the  ministers  of 
this  real  Autocrat ;  that  no  longer  those  titular  gentlemen,  who,  in  London 
and  Paris,  on  solemn  days,  wear  crowns  and  solemn  dresses,  but  Canning, 
and  Scott,  and  Mai  thus,  are  now  the  sovereigns  of  the  world.  It  is  in  this 
fact,  that  Public  Opinion  has  grown  wiser,  and  will  continue  to  become 
more  informed,  that  I  find  the  superiority  and  the  hope  of  our  times.  And 
the  humblest  individual,  aware  that  his  opinions  are  a  portion  of  the  sov 
ereign  law  of  the  land,  would  do  wrong  to  conceive  his  influence  to  be  in 
Bignificant.  It  is  not  insignificant.  Not  a  thought  you  think,  not  a  syllable 
you  utter,  but  may,  in  its  consequences,  affect  the  prosperity  of  your  coun 
try.  Our  world  is  framed  like  a  vast  whispering  gallery,  — one  of  those 
curious  structures  of  human  skill,  where  every  breath  is  audible,  and  the 
word  that  at  first  was  faintly  spoken,  scarce  trusted  to  the  silent  air,  is  sent 
swiftly  onward  and  around  the  vaulted  walls  ;  a  thousand  babbling  echoes 
repeat  and  prolong  the  sound,  till  it  shakes  the  globe  with  its  thunder. 

Come  out  of  your  mdi vidual  shell.    Give  your  thoughts  to  ^he  interests 
32 


874  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

of  vour  race,  and,  like  the  genie  in  Oriental  story,  who,  creeping  oat  of  th« 
casket  of  a  few  inches,  in  which  he  had  been  imprisoned,  regained  his  co- 
lossal proportions  you  will  grow  to  the  stature  of  a  godlike  intelligence. 
Nor  will  you  fail  af  your  reward-  Those  who,  by  their  mighty  influence, 
exert  a  wise  control  over  the  will  of  the  people,  always  receive  from  the 
public  opinion  thsy  have  enlightened,  their  just  meed  of  praise.  It  is  a 
ipectiicle  we  can  never  behold  without  emotion,  the  supremacy  of  one 
mind  over  this  concentrated  intelligence.  It  claims  our  reluctant  reverence 
for  characters  in  which  the  amiable  virtues  are  wanting.  The  moral  merit 
of  Cromwell  is  exceedingly  questionable ;  but  his  astonishing  mastery  of 
the  public  mind,  and  the  e'^nergies  he  wielded  in  the  cause  of  liberty,  hare 
procured  him  the  endless  gratitude  of  freemen. 

"  For,  if  we  would  speak  true, 

Much  to  the  man  is  due, 
"Who  from  his  private  gardens,  where 
He  lived  reserved  and  austere, 

As  if  his  highest  plot, 

To  plant  the  liergamot, 
•  Could  by  industrious  valor  climb 

To  ruin  the  gi-eat  work  of  Time, 

And  cast  the  kingdoms  old 

Into  another  mould. " 

But,  where  virtues  and  talents  have  alike  contributed  to  invest  an  indi 
vidual  with  this  authority  over  his  cotemporaries,  public  opinion  rejoices 
to  pay  its  instructor  a  hearty  tribute  of  deserved  praise.  It  has  lately  been 
ligiially  manifested,  in  the  deep  sympathy  in  our  loss,  on  the  resignation  of 
his  seat  at  the  head  of  the  university,  by  one,  for  so  many  years,  its  oma 
ment  and  pride.  I  cannot  speak  of  President  Kirkland  without  a  crowd  o " 
ailectionate  recollections,  which,  I  am  sure,  are  familiar  to  all  who  hear  me 
For  he  was  one  of  that  truly  fine  genius  which  identified  his  character  with 
the  institution  in  which  he  sat.  Whilst  he  remained  here,  his  elegant  mind 
rained  influence  on  all  tha*  harbored  in  its  halls ;  and  it  was  not  easy  for 
dulness  to  come  under  his  eye  without  being  sweetened  and  refined.  The 
stranger  who  saw  him,  went  away  glad  that  there  was  so  much  savor  in 
human  wit.  He  was  a  living  refutation  of  that  ancient  calumny,  that  col 
leges  make  men  morose  and  tmskilful  in  the  science  of  human  nature.  He 
had  a  countenance  that  was  like  a  benediction.  And  what  with  his  liberal 
heart,  his  rich  conversation,  and  the  grace  of  his  accomplished  manners,  he 
reflected  a  light  upon  this  seminary,  which  a  just  community  have  not 
failed,  and  shall  not  fail  to  repay  with  lasting  honor. 


Ikcample, 

OP   A   VALEDICTORY   ENGLISH   ORATION. 
Second  Degree  —  Master's  Oration. 

In  selecting  for  our  topic, "  The  Spirit  that  should  accompany  our  Repnb 
lican  Institutions,"  let  it  not  bo  anticipated  that  we  are  bringing  hither  a 
political  tirade  to  fret  and  rave  alxnit  ourselves,  or  that  we  mean  to  run  mad 
at  the  sound  of  our  own  voice,  as  it  j)ronounces  the  word  "  republic."  We 
have  not  arrayed  ourselves,  gladiator  like,  to  attack  or  defend  public  meas- 
ures,—to  (lcsj)a(ch  in  the  few  moments  allotted  us  all  the  political  questions 
that  now  interest  us  as  a  people,  — or  to  set  right  the  executive,  legislative 
and  .Hidicial  departments  of  our  govenrtnent,  in  the  short  period  of  twentv 
minutes.  Wo  come  not  to  battle  with  politicians,  whoever  they  niav  be 
Mid  whether  they  staitd  on  either  bank,  or  in  the  middle  of  the"  Rubicou. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  375 

We  come  not  to  sweep  down  regiments  of  them  with  a  sentence,  or  to  blow 
up  the  countiy  with  a  magazine  of  words.  No ;  we  would  dwell  upon  this 
Bpirit,  without  taking  the  word  "  politics "  upon  our  lips.  These  have 
entered  into  and  contaminated  every  other  place,  —  let  the  house  of  God, 
the  temple  of  literature,  be  sacred  a  little  longer.  Let  there  be  one  spot 
left,  where  rational,  thinking  man  may  retreat  from  political,  talking  man. 
We  will  not  be  the  lirst  to  tread  it  with  a  saci'ilegious  step.  No ;  in  the 
spirit  in  which  the  prophet  of  old  put  off  his  shoes  on  Mount  Horeb,  "  be- 
cause the  ground  whereon  he  stood  was  holy,"  we  would  venture  in  this 
place  to  speak  of  that  spirit  which  should  guide  and  animate  us  in  the 
enjoyment  of  our  peculiar  institutions. 

And  addressing,  as  we  trust,  nay,  as  we  know,  a  republican  assembly, 
born  under  the  influence,  surrounded  and  supported  by  the  spirit  of  free 
institutions,  what  inquiry  can  be  more  important  than  that  which  opens  to 
them  the  way  in  which  they  can  most  safely  keep,  and  most  perfectly 
enjoy  these  institutions?  The  work  of  attaining  them  is  accompHshed. 
The 'battle  is  over,  the  victory  is  won,  and  our  fathers  are  at  rest.  These 
institutions  are  now  ours.  Praise  cannot  make  them  more,  nor  detraction 
less  so.  They  are  oui's,  bought  and  paid  for.  But  they  are  ours  under  a 
eolemn  responsibleness,  —  under  none  other  than  the  trust  that  we  will  pre 
serve,  exalt,  and  extend  them.  But  we  shall  discharge  this  high  and  hon 
orable  trust,  only  as  we  hold  them  in  a  right  spirit,  and  exercise  them  upon 
proper  principles.  We  speak  not  extravagantly,  then,  when  we  say,  that  in 
maintaining  and  holding  sacred  that  spirit  which  will  adorn  and  perpetuate 
these  institutions,  and  give  them  the  only  thing  they  want,  their  free  course, 
consists  the  whole  duty  of  our  generation ;  and  that  when  this  ceases  to  be 
important  and  interesting  in  our  eyes,  we  cease  to  deserve  them.  Honor 
and  gi-atitude  have  been  to  those  who  attained,  —  honor  and  gratitude  shall 
be  to  those  who  preserve  them. 

The  spirit,  then,  in  the  first  place,  whose  claims  we  would  advocate,  is 
a  spirit  of  national  modesty.  We  use  the  term  in  distinction  from  that 
national  arrogance  or  vanity  which  we  deem  unbecoming  and  dangerous. 

We  are  aware  that  the  history  of  our  country  is  a  peculiar  one,  —  peculiar 
in  its  interest  and  importance,  and  not  to  us  only,  but  to  the  world.  We 
nave  read,  with  a  thrilling  interest,  the  story  of  our  father's  doings,  dwelt 
upon  their  glorious  anticipations,  and  hailed  the  fulfilment  of  them,  as  year 
after  year  they  have  been  developed.  But  where,  in  all  this,  is  the  occasion 
of  arrogance  to  ourselves  and  denunciation  of  others,  as  if  we  stood  on  the 
only  elevation,  and,  what  is  more,  had  reached  that  elevation  ourselves  ? 
Our  duty,  we  have  said,  is  to  adorn  our  instutions  ;  ostentation  is  its  very 
opposite,  —  to  diffuse  them  abroad ;  detraction  of  others  will  defeat  us. 
But  who  are  they  who  would  thus  stride  the  earth  like  a  colossus  ?  Where 
is  the  history  of  their  toil,  and  danger,  and  suffering  ?  Where  are  the 
monuments  of  their  personal  valor  and  heroism,  and  splendid  achievement  ? 
Where  is  the  record  of  their  martyrdom?  We  have  seen  the  conceited 
descendant  of  some  rich  ancestor,  decked  in  the  robes  which  that  ancestor 
has  toiled  that  he  might  wear,  —  fluttering  about,  the  puppet  of  an  hour, 
yet  walking,  as  he  imagines,  a  god  amidst  the  surrounding  pigmies, — 
talking  as  if  the  world  were  made  for  him  alone,  because,  forsooth,  he  really 
cannot  conceive,  —  as  certainly  no  other  can,  —  how  he  could  have  been 
made  for  the  world.  We  have  seen,  I  say,  this  poor  imitation  of  humanity, 
and  looked  with  contempt  on  what  we  could  not  pity.  But  what  do  they 
more,  or  better,  who,  in  the  costume  of  national  vanity,  are  stalking  about 
amongst  the  nations  of  the  earth,  vainly  declaiming  about  their  institutions, 
—  theirs,  because  they  happened  to  be  born  where  these  had  been  planted,  — 
and  sweeping  down  the  institutions  of  others,  for  the  modest  yet  cogent 
reason  of  the  Pharisee,  that  they  are  not  as  their  own. 

But  we  wo  lid  see  amongst  us,  as  a  nation,  that  modesty  which  we  admire 
•o  much  in  domestic  life.     Individual  modesty,  —  we  have  all  seen  her,  ~ 


376  AIDS    TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

is  a  lovely  damsel,  with  simple  mien,  retinng  manners,  and  chaste  array 
There  is  nothing  about  her  to  remind  one  of  a  flower  garden  in  distress,  oi 
a  rainbow  bewitched.  What  is  gaudy,  slie  hates,  —  display  is  her  abomi 
nation.  The  scene  of  her  glory  is  at  home,  acting,  not  spealiincc  her  praises 
This  is  individual  modesty,  and  national  modesty  is  the  same  oamsel  grown 
into  a  discreet  and  stately  matron.  She  has  changed  her  robes,  it  is  true, 
but  not  their  character  nor  her  own.  She  is  still  the  same,  only  more  per- 
fect in  her  principles,  as  she  is  more  extended  in  her  influence,  —  seen  only 
in  the  unassuming  deportment  of  her  children,  —  heard  only  in  the  voica 
of  their  enterprise,  —  known,  as  every  good  tree  is,  only  by  her  fruits.  We 
would  honor  the  matron,  as  we  courted  the  damsel.  We  would  hold  her  fast, 
for  she  is  our  ornament ;  —  we  would  love  her,  for  she  is  altogether  lovely. 

We  would  not,  —  for  it  is  the  spirit  that,  in  the  second  place,  we  woul4 
advocate,  —  we  would  not,  for  we  dare  not,  decry  that  national  pride,  hon 
est,  open,  high-minded  pride,  which  originates  in  self  respect,  is  nurtured 
by  all  the  generous  sympathies  that  gather  round  the  name  of  our  native 
land,  and  which  brings  lorth  as  its  fruits  national  enterprise  and  strength, 
and  what  is  more,  national  virtue.  National  pride  in  this  sense  is  patriot- 
ism, and  who  shall  decry  patriotism  ?  But  the  vanity  that  we  condemn 
is  opposite  in  its  every  look,  feature,  and  gesture,  to  this  honorable  virtue, 
and  it  is  because  we  think  it  so,  that  we  do  condemn  it.  Vanity  is  mean,  — 
natriotism  is  noble.  Vanity  is  dangerous,  —  patriotism  is  our  bulwark. 
Vanity  is  weakness,  —  patriotism  is  power.  The  organ  of  the  one  is  the 
tongue,  —  that  of  the  other  the  heart.  An  old  poet  has  said  of  a  somewhat 
diflerent  psission,  —  and  there  are  those  who  hear  me  who  can  bear  witness 
to  its  truth,  —  that 

*•  Passions  are  likened  best  to  floods  and  streams ; 

The  shallow  murmur,  —  but  the  deep  arc  dumb ; 

So  when  aflections  yield  discourse,  it  seems 

The  bottom  is  but  shallow  whence  thev  come. 

Tliey  that  are  rich  in  words  must  needs  cliscover, 

They  are  but  poor  in  that  wlrich  makes  a  lover.'' 

And  there  is  philosophy  as  well  as  poetry  in  the  idea. 

Is  it  asked,  then,  who  is  the  friend,  the  firm,  true-hearted,  evei-to-oe- 
trusted  friend  of  our  institutions  ?  We  would  answer,  not  he  who  is  perched 
upon  the  house-top,  shouting  hosannas  to  the  four  comers  of  the  earth,  and 
proclaiming  to  the  world,  "  Lo,  here,  and  here  alone,  perfection  has  taken 
up  her  abode  ;  "  but  rather  he  who  has  placed  himself  at  the  bottom,  in  th« 
most  honorable  of  all  attitudes,  that  of  strenuous  yet  uniu^suming  exertion  ; 
—  not  he  who  talks,  but  he  who  does  the  most.  Is  it  asked  again,  where, 
then,  are  we  to  look  for  the  praises  of  these  institutions  at  home,  and  theu 
acceptance  and  diflusion  abroad  ?  We  would  answer  again,  not  to  the 
dangerous  sweeping  panegyrics  of  us  and  ours,  or  the  more  dangerous 
sweeping  denunciations  of  all  othei*s  and  all  things  else,  but  to  the  good 
they  have  done,  the  evil  they  have  prevented,  the  happiness  they  have  dif 
fused,  tlie  misery  tliey  have  healed  or  mitigated.  Ask  of  honest  industry, 
why  she  labora  with  a  strong  hand  and  a  smiling  face.  Ask  of  conmierce, 
why  she  dances,  like  e  sailor  boy,  in  the  breeze,  joyous  and  impatient.  Lis- 
ten to  the  busy,  gladsome  hum  of  art  mingUng  with  the  voice  of  nature  on 
every  stream,  and  the  song  of  contentment  blending  with  and  perfecting 
the  melodv.  Heboid  eduw^tion,  the  inmate  of  the  humblest  dwelling,  — 
man  enlightened,  thinking  for  himself,  and  worshipping  his  maker  in  the 
only  acceptable  way,  his  own  way.  Look  at  youi-selves,  your  children, 
your  homes.  And  if  you  see  not,  hear  not,  feci  not,  the  praises  of  these  in- 
stitutions in  all  those,  eloquence  cannot  varnish  them.  Lot  tliem  begone, 
thev  are  not  what  thev  seem  to  be. 

'Ihe  spint,  aguin,  wboso  claims  we  would  advocate  as  an  accompaniment 
of  our  institutions,  is  a  spirit  of  national  moderation.  The  theory,  and  may 
It  ever  be  the  practical  ell«ct  of  these  institutions,  is  this,  that  every  fret 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  37/ 

member  of  the  community,  be  he  high  or  low,  rich  or  poor,  has  a  right, 
equal  and  unquestionable,  to  think,  speak,  and  act  upon  every  measure  or 
igiuating  among  and  interesting  us  as  a  people.  And,  still  further,  the  fuU 
development  of  these  institutions  demands  the  fair  and  unshackled  exer 
tion  of  this  right.  Take  this  single  fact  in  connexion  with  the  liistory  of 
man.  What  is  the  history  of  man,  we  mean  political  man,  as  he  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  community  and  the  subject  of  government  ?  It  is  but  a  history  of 
parties, — of  this  side  and  that  side  of  some  undefinable  line,  the  direction  cf 
which  no  earthly  philosophy  can  trace.  Yes  ;  strange  as  it  may  seem,  and 
inconsistent  witlx  that  rank  in  creation  to  which  man  has  laid  claim,  ever 
since  the  time  when  Abraham  and  Lot  wint  one  to  the  right  hand  and  the 
other  to  the  left,  men  have  divided  themselves  into  parties,  at  the  name  of 
which  the  human  tongue  falters,  and  the  human  understanding  shrinks 
aghast.  And  this  has  been  the  case,  while,  instead  of  a  general  freedom  of 
speech  and  action,  a  few  only  of  men,  a  very  few,  have  been  acknowledged 
to  be  human  beings,  and  all  the  rest  have  been  left  to  make  themselves  out 
so.  What  is  to  be  the  consequence  now,  when  all  ai'e  admitted  to  be  so  ? 
Jarring  and  confusion,  and  consequent  destruction,  have  made  up  the  story 
of  mankind,  while  tyranny  bridled  their  tongues,  and  despotism  hung  like 
a  dead  weight  upon  their  spirits.  What  is  to  be  the  result  now,  when  tyr- 
anny and  despotism  have  been  hurled  "  to  tlie  moles  and  the  bats,"  and 
the  tongue  and  the  spirit  of  every  man  are  admitted,  required  to  be  free  ? 
The  history  of  our  race,  we  perceive,  reads  us  but  a  sorry  lesson  upon  the 
subject.  And  the  history  oi  our  own  country  forms  by  no  means  a  perfect 
exception  to  the  rule ;  for  an  old  Spanish  author,  not  a  hundred  years  ago, 
daclared,  '*  that  the  air  of  that  country  ycleped  America,  was  marvellously 
Lafectious,  and  inclined  men's  minds  to  wrangling  and  contention." 

But  the  spirit  which,  if  any  can,  must  put  an  end  to  this  hitherto  close 
alliance  between  freedom  and  contention,  —  the  spirit  which,  like  our  liber- 
ties, is  nowhere  to  be  found  in  history,  but  which  must  spring  up  with  and 
protect  them,  is  a  spirit  of  national  moderation,  —  that  generous.  Christian 
spirit,  which  is  oool  while  it  thinks,  and  charitable  while  it  speaks  and  acts, 
—  that  spirit  which,  if  experience  does  not  sanction,  reason  does,  and 
which,  if  to  be  found  in  no  other  record,  is  yet  foimd  and  enforced  in  that 
of  the  pattern  of  all  institutions  —  Christianity.  Yes  ;  the  single  consider 
ation,  —  and  we  need  no  other,  —  the  single  consideration  of  the  broad  ex- 
tent of  our  liberties,  is  in  itself  the  most  eloquent  advocate  of  moderation. 
Perfect  freedom  must  take  her  for  its  handmaid,  for  wherever  it  has  started 
without  her,  it  has  failed.  That  which,  if  any  thing  can,  must  distinguish 
the  history  of  the  present  from  that  of  all  past  time,  is  the  operation  of  the 
true  republican  principle,  that  the  full  enjoyment  of  hberty  by  all  depends 
upon  the  moderate  use  of  it  by  each. 

But  Avhy  argue  an  abstract  principle  ?  Who  are  they  that  oppose  n  t 
What  is  it  that  impedes  its  progress  ?  We  are  not  decrying,  —  God  forbid 
that  we  ever  should,  —  a  spirit  of  free,  open  discussion.  On  the  contrary, 
we  advocate  it  as  the  life-blood  of  our  institutions,  the  very  promoter  of 
moderation.  It  is  an  abandonment  of  this  fair  discussion  «hat  we  condemn 
as  fatal  to  it,  —  a  willingness  to  act  in  obedience  to  other  than  our  ovvn  un- 
biassed jud^ent.  It  is  they  who  would  surrender  their  personal  independ- 
ence for  the  bondage  of  patizans,  who  would  sacrifice  their  sacred  birth- 
right of  free  thought  and  action,  to  become  the  meanest,  because  the  volun- 
tary slaves  of  another,  who  must  answer  for  the  discord  and  confusion  tliat 
result.  Who  is  he  that  talks  of  freedom  and  equality  and  rights,  and  yet 
thinks  as  another  man  thinks,  acts  as  he  acts,  and  simply  because  that 
other  bids  him  so  think  and  act  ?  If  this  be  liberty,  that  liberty  of  which 
we  have  heard  so  much,  give  us  back  again  the  dark  ages,  for  then,  at  least, 
we  shall  not  see  the  chain  that  binds  us  to  the  earth. 

Opposed  also  to  this  spirit  of  moderation,  is  that  desire  of  controversial 
distinction  in  the  younger  members  of  the  community,  which,  when  it  ha» 
32* 


378  AIDS    TO     ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

well  spiced  their  tongue  and  embittered  their  pen,  produces  what  is  called 
a  young  politician.  I  know  not  a  more  amusing,  were  it  not  so  dangerous 
a  specimen  of  our  race,  as  this  class  of  inexperienced  yet  fiery  combatants. 
Tliey  come  into  the  world,  and  the  first  cry  you  hear  is,  "  We  must  fight 
Our  fiithers  and  our  grandfathers  fought,  and  why  should  not  we  ?  True, 
we  have  nothing  very  special  to  fight  about,  but 'still  we  must  fight.  The 
old  party  fires  have  been  burning  only  half  a  century  ;  why  put  them  out 
BO  soon  ?  And  the  questions  that  kindled  them,  though  a  li'ttle  out  of  date, 
have  still  two  sides  left  and  what  need  we  more  ?  "  And  so  the  battle  begins, 
—  would  that  it  might  end  where  it  began,  —  in  simple,  unattained,  and 
Unattainable  nothing.  We  admire  their  zeal,  applaud  their  ingenuity  are 
astonished  at  their  more  than  Quixotic  valor ;  but  we  laugh  at  their  sim- 
plicity, we  wonder  at  their  folly,  we  deprecate  their  efiects.  We  would 
trust  our  institutions  to  cooler  heads  and  safer  hands.  Experience,  —  that 
grey  headed  old  gentleman,  who  followed  time  into  the  world,  and  who  was 
cotemporary  with  wisdom",  ere  the  foundations  of  the  earth  were  laid,  is  al- 
together the  safest  guardian  of  such  precious  treasures.  True,  he  may  not 
harangue  with  quite  so  much  rapidity  and  fierceness  as  these  fluent  usurp 
ers  of  his  place ;  but  the  words  which  drop  slowly  from  his  honored  lips  are 
full  as  wise  and  full  as  worthy  of  preservation  as  theirs.  And  though  he 
stand  leaning  upon  his  staff,  and  looking  with  straining  eyes,  we  would 
trust  to  his  vision  quite  as  implicitly,  as  to  that  of  the  stately,  elastic  vouth, 
who,  with  younger  and  brighter  eyes,  does  not  always  see.  We  would  call 
back  this  venerable  seer  from  his  obscurity.  He  is  growing  old  fashioned. 
We  would  array  him  in  a  modern  costume,  and  set  him  in  our  high  places. 
The  free  air  of*  our  country  will  renew  his  youth,  and  he,  in  return,  will 
build  up  otir  institutions  in  the  spirit  of  wisdom  and  moderation. 

We  would  banish  from  amongst  us,  then,  these  and  all  other  dispositions 
which  stand  in  the  way  of  that  national  moderation  which  we  deem  so  es- 
sential. And  then,  behold  a  contrast !  Place  yourself  upon  the  highest 
elevation  that  overlooks  your  countrv.  Banish  moderation  from  the  mul- 
titude beneath  you.  You  may  have  heard  the  roar  of  the  thunder,  and  the 
lashing  of  the  ocean,  but  you  have  heard  music,  literal  music,  compared 
with  the  roar  and  lashing  of  an  immoderate,  uncharitable,  angry,  free 
people.  But  look  again,  —  she  has  returned.  Behold  the  sublimest  sight 
which  the  earth  can  aflbrd,  —  ten  millions  of  freemen,  different  each  from 
the  other,  yet  with  a  common  country,  a  common  interest,  and  a  common 
Viope,  meeting,  discussing,  differing  indeed  in  opinion  about  common  meas- 
ures,—  but  the  time  for  action  has  come,  —  they  have  gone  up  like  Chris- 
tian men  to  discharge  their  duty  to  their  country,  —  it  is  over,  —  thev  have 
cone,  like  Christian  men,  to  discharge  their  duty  to  themselves,  he  the 
latter  picture  ours,  and  freedom  will  nidcod  be  a  goddess ;  be  it  ours,  and 
we  could  ahnost  say  that  a  little  vanitv  would  be  excusable. 

From  speaking  of  the  sj^irit  which  should  animate  us  as  members  of  our 
great  republic,  the  occasion  naturally  brings  us  for  a  moment  to  the  spirit 
with  which  we  meet  as  members  of  that  smaller  republic  of  letters,  whoso 
anniversary  has  this  day  brought  us  together.  To  those  of  us  who  here 
meet  again,  where  a  short  time  since  we  parted,  the  occasion  is  one  of 
mingled  feelings.  We  have  gathered  again  in  this  great  congregation,  and 
around  this  sacrod  altar;  but  iiot  all.  In  the  little  time  that  has  elapsed 
since  our  separation,  three  of  our  luimber,  and  among  them  one  who,  in 
the  event  which  has  j)laced  him  whom  you  hear  before  you,  would  have  so 
much  more  al)ly  filled  the  spot  where  I  am  standing',  have  joined  tliat 
greater  congregation,  arouTul  a  holier  altar.  The  thought  is  a  solemn  and 
melancholy  one.  Hut  m,  in  the  wisdom  of  Providence,  they  were  not  per- 
mitted to  enter  upon  the  public  stage,  the  feelings  at  theirloss  belong  not 
to  the  public.  It  is  not  here  that  we  should  speak  of  their  virtues,  which 
we  loved,  —  or  of  their  talents,  which  we  respected.  These  feelings  belong 
to  us  as  individuals,  and  as  members  of  that  little  circle,  their  coonexioo 
with  which  wo  shall  always  hold  in  pleasing  recollection 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  379 

But  we  look  round  again  and  bahold  another  wide  breach  has  been  made 
Within  this  short  period,  in  which  all  of  us  have  a  common  interest.  The 
venerable  head  of  our  institution,*  —  the  guardian,  instructor,  friend,  the 
father  of  his  pupils, — he  under  whose  benignant  auspices  we  commenced 
and  completed  our  collegiate  career,  and  who  dismissed  us  from  these  hos 
pitable  walls  with  a  parental  blessing,  no  longer  occupies  that  seat  which 
ne  filled  so  long,  so  honorably,  and  so  usefully.  We  would  mingle  our  re- 
gret with  the  general  feeling  that  has  gone  with  him  to  his  retirement.  We 
would  send  to  him  the  grateful  remembrance  and  filial  affection  of  those 
who  will  ever  be  proud  to  remember  "heir  connexion  with  him.  We  would 
bid  him  farewell  on  this  spot,  consecrated  by  associations  which  will  ever 
bring  him  to  our  remembrance.  In  the  name  of  that  education  which  he 
advanced,  of  that  literature  which  he  encouraged,  of  that  religion  which  he 
adorned,  we  would  bid  him  an  affectionate  farewell.  We  pray  that  the  old 
age  ot  that  man  may  be  serene  and  cheerful,  whose  youth  has  been  so  bril- 
liant, and  whose  manhood  so  useful.  The  smiles  or  a  kind  Providence  be 
ever  with  him.  The  conscience  of  a  faithful  steward  is  his  reward  here,  — 
his  reward  hereafter  he  has  learned  from  higher  authority. 

With  these  feelings  of  regret  to  sadden  this  otherwise  joyous  occasion, 
may  it  not  have  been  well  for  us  to  have  occupied  it  in  dwelling  upon  the 
spirit  that  should  accompany  those  institutions,  into  the  midst  of  which  we 
are  hastening.  It  is  to  the  yOung  men  of  our  times  that  the  call  of  our  in 
Btitutions  on  this  subject  is  th^  loudest.  Be  it  theirs,  then,  to  cultivate  and 
diffuse  this  spirit.  And  then,  what  if  no  trumpet-tongued  orator  shall  rise 
up  to  proclaim  their  praises,  —  what  if  eloquence  be  dumb,  —  the  tongue  of 
man  silent  ?  They  have  a  heaven-born  eloquence,  sweeter  than  music,  yet 
louder  than  thunder,  —  the  eloquence  of  truth.  They  have  an  argument, 
which,  though  it  speak  not,  is  heard  through  the  universe,  —  the  argument 
of  a  good  cause,  on  a  sound  bottom.  Let  the  spirit  that  should  accompany 
them  be  abroad,  —  let  national  modesty,  moderation,  charity,  independence, 
and,  above  all,  the  spirit  of  Christianity,  be  their  guard,  and  then,  like 
Christianity,  the  powers  of  nature  may  strive  against  them,  but  they  will 
stand,  for  they  are  founded  upon  a  rock.  Man  cannot  overthrow  them,  and 
the  Almighty  wiU  not. 

Example 

OF   A   VALEDICTORY   ORATION   IN   LATIN. 

Omnibus  nunc  rite  et  feliciter  peractis,  restat,  auditores  spectatissimi,  ut 
^obis  pro  hac  benevolentia  gratias  agamus,  omnia  fausta  precemur,  et  pace 
decedere  et  valere  vos  jubeamus.  Si  spectandi  et  audiendi  vos  taedet,  ut 
citissime  abeatis  prgestabimus. 

Sed  primum,  omnibus  qui  adestis,  quod  tam  frequentes  convenistis,  tam 
attente  audistis,  tam  benigne  plausistis,  gratias  bene  meritas  agimus;  — 
vobis  prsecipue,  virgines  dilectae,  matronesque  honoratse,  juvenibus  virisque 
spes  et  solatium.  Quid  nostra  comitia  sine  vobis  ?  Quid  nos  disertos,  elo- 
quentes  denique  efficeret,  si  non  ut  aribus  oculisque  vestris  noa  commende- 
remus?    Etsi  nonnullae 

"  Spectatum  veniunt,  veniunt  specte.ntur  ut  ipsae,"  — 

et  ignoscimus  et  probamus.  Cur  venimus  nos  javenes,  nos  viri,  nisi  nt 
Bpectemur,  audiamur  et  ipsi  ?  Sed  plures,  nimirum,  ut  audiatis,  ut  oculis. 
Unguis,  votis  faveatis.    Igitur  grates,  sed 

"  Grates  peraolveres  dignas 
Non  opis  est  nostras.^' 

•*  Eev.  John  Thornton  Kirkland. 


880  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Vir  excellentissime,  nostrae  reipublicae  princeps,  te  ex  animo  salutamua, 
ac  virum  tantum,  bonisque  omnibus  tarn  probatum,  nostris  adesse  comitii* 
gauderaus. 

Virura  tibi  conjtinctissimum,  patrisecjue  et  virtutis  fautoribus  carissimuin, 
ac,  dum  vixerit,  irrtegritatis,  prudentiae,  omnisque  virtutis  exemplum,  in 
sedes  altiores  arcessitum,  tecum  lugemus.  Sed  bonorura  animis,  omnium 
desiderio,  "  Manet  mansurumque  est  quidquid  in  eo  amavimus,  quidquid 
admirati  sumus.    Placide  quiescat." 

Praeclara  quidem  nostrae  reipublicae  felicitas  videtur,  quum  inter  tam  mul- 
tos  virtute  eximios  nemo  ob  amorem  erga  illam  insignem  se  reddere  potest ; 
quum  omnia  prospere  pulchreque  eveniunt.  Florentibus  rebus,  summa  hu 
JUS  reipublicae  tranquilitate,  summa  concordia,  respublica  mibi  quidem  et 
aliis  multis  ut  confido  carissima  tuis  auspiciis  evasit  nova  ;  *  olim  quidem 
terris  nunc  re  et  legibus  a  vobis  disjuncta ;  ut  aliam  sese  libertatis  vindicem 
exhibeat,  alium  amicitiae  vinculum  adjiciat.  Perduret  atque  valeat.  Vale, 
vir  excellentissime. 

Et  tu,  honoratissime,  cui  virticem  setate  provecto  albentem  civiles  usque 
ambiunt  honores  ;  et  vos,  Conciliarii,  Curatoresque  honorandi,  quibus  faven 
tibus  et  adjuvantibus,  vigent  res  summa  nostraque  Academia,  valete. 

Vale  et  tu,  Praeses  reverende  et,  si  mihi  liceat,  carissime,  cuius  prassidic 
lumen  veritatis,  patrum  auspiciis  in  nostrae  Academiae  penetralibus  olim  ac 
censum,  fulsit  fulgetque  novo  semper  purioreque  splendore.  Esto  sempiter 
num. 

Valete  Professores  eruditissimi  ac  praesbtntissimi !  Quibus  eloquemur 
verbis  quanta  observantia  vos  habemus,  quani  gratis  animis  vestrdm  in  nos 
assiduorum  laborum,  curaeque  vigilantis  recordamur  ?  Sit  vobis  hoc  excel 
Bum  et  pene  divinimi  munus  et  praemium.  Omnibus  qui  merentur  certissime 
eveniet. 

Amici  sodalesque  carissimi,  iterum  denique,  post  aliquod  temporis  inter 
vallum,  convenimus,  ut  his  sedibus  amatis,  quas  veluti  beatorura  insulas 
dolentes  reliquimus,  nostrae  custodibus  juventutis  merito  honoratis,  nobis 
invicem  et  iUis  valedicemus.  Quis  enim,  quum  temporis  inter  camienas  et 
cnm  amicis  acti  reminiscitur,  doloi-em  non  sentiat  quod  his  omnibus  nimiura 
cito  sese  eripere,  marique  incerto  ac  tumultuoso  se  committers  oporteat, 
nunquam  reoiturum,  nuuquam  sodalium  ora  jucunda  aspecturum  !  Inter- 
ject© jam  nunc  brevi  tantum  triennio,  multos  op  time  dUectos  oculis  ani- 
xnoque  frustra  requirimus. 

Quid  ego  non  audio  tantum  ?  Eorum  quos  inter-lectissimos  habuimus, 
alter  morti  occubuit,  alter  in  terris  externis  abest  Quid  illos  aut  alios 
quos  amavimus  a  me  nominari  nocesse  sit  ?  Quisque  vestrum  eos  requirit, 
quisque  desidorat.  Valeant  omues  qui  absunt,  et  vos,  amici  fratresque, 
valete ! 

Vos  quoquo  valete,  omncs  qui  adestis,  —  senes  atque  juvenes.  quibus  for 
vona  fiua  ot  quibus  pcrfida,  — matronaj  virginesque,  quibus  sit  aeoor  quibus 
ine  desit ;  —  vobis  adsint  ante  omnia  virtus, 

"  Lis  nnnquftin,  toga  rara,  mens  quicta, 
Vires  ingouuBB,  sulubrc  corpus; 
Quod  8ltis  esM  velltla,  nibilquo  malltls." 

•  Anno  1830,  r«8p.  Maine  a  rep.  Mass.  se  soparcrtt. 


A.IDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  381 

XCVI. 

A  BOWDOIN  PRIZE  DISSERTATION. 

Example. 

Essay  on  the  Literary  Character  of  Br.  Samuel  Johnson. 

While  an  author  is  living,  it  is  not  extraordinary  that  mankind  should 
form  an  erroneous  estimate  of  his  works.  The  influence  which  prejudict 
and  partiality  often  possess  over  the  minds  of  his  contemporaries,  is  incom 
patible  with  a  correct  decision  of  his  merits.  It  is  not  until  time  has  ef- 
faced the  recollection  of  party  feelings,  when  the  virtues  and  foibles  of  the 
man  are  forgotten,  and  the  warm  emotions  of  friendship  or  resentment 
are  no  longer  felt,  that  the  merit  of  an  author  can  be  fairly  ascertained. 
So  variable  is  public  opinion,  which  is  often  formed  withoxit  examination, 
and  liable  to  be  warped  by  caprice,  that  works  of  real  merit  are  frequently 
left  for  posterity  to  discover  and  admire,  while  the  pompous  efforts  of  im 

gertinence  and  folly  are  the  wonders  of  the  age.  The  gigantic  genius  of 
hakspeare  so  far  surpassed  the  learning  and  penetration  of  his  times,  that 
his  productions  were  then  little  read  and  less  admired.  There  were  few 
who  cotdd  understand,  and  still  fewer  who  could  relish  the  beauties  of  a 
writer  whose  style  was  as  various  as  his  talents  were  surprising.  The  im 
mortal  Milton  suffered  the  mortification  of  public  neglect,  after  hav'ng  en- 
riched the  Uterature  of  his  country  with  a  poem,  which  has  since  been 
esteemed  the  most  beautiful  composition  in  his  language  ;  and  his  poetical 
talents,  which  entitled  him  to  a  reputation  the  most  extensive  ami  gratify 
ing,  could  scarcely  procure  for  him,  in  his  own  times,  a  distinction  above 
contemporary  authora  who  are  now  forgotten.  Ignorance  and  interest, 
envy  and  political  ranoor,  have  concealed  from  public  notice  works,  which 
•he  enlightened  intelligence  of  after  ages  have  delighted  to  rescue  from 
oblivion  ;  and  it  is  no  less  common  for  posterity  to  forget  ephemeral  pro- 
ductions, which  were  the  admiration  of  the  day  in  which  they  were  pro- 
duced. 

In  a  retrospect  of  the  literature  of  any  age,  the  mind  views  the  respec- 
iive  authors  as  a  group  of  statues,  which  a  cusory  glance  of  the  eye  discov- 
ers at  a  distance ;  and  although,  on  a  nearer  examination,  it  could  admire 
the  features  and  beauties  discoverable  in  those  of  a  diminutive  appearance, 
yet  the  energetic  expression  and  lofty  attitude  of  some  who  overtop  the  rest, 
exclusively  attract  our  notice  and  command  attention.  Perhaps  there  has 
been  no  age  concerning  which  this  remark  is  more  justly  applicable,  than 
the  eighteenth  century.  In  that  period,  a  most  numerous  army  of  authors 
took  the  field,  greater  perhaps  in  number,  but  not  exceeding  m  height  of 
Btature,  excellence  of  skill,  or  brilliance  of  achievement,  the  great  men  of 
the  three  preceding  centuries. 

In  contemplating  this  collection  of  writers,  the  attention  is  necessarily 
withdrawn  from  those  over  whom  the  towering  genius  of  Dr.  Johnson 
seems  to  bend,  and  is  attracted  by  the  colossal  statiie  which  represents  the 
gigantic  powers  of  his  mind.  Whether  we  regard  the  variety  of  his  talents, 
the  soundness  of  his  judgment,  the  depth  of  his  penetration,  the  acuteness 
of  his  sagacity,  the  subtleness  of  his  reasoning  faculty,  or  the  extent  of  his 
knowledge,  he  is  equally  the  subject  of  astonishment  and  admiration. 

It  will  not,  perhaps,  be  hazardous  to  affirm,  that  within  the  range  of  an 


882  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

cient  and  modem  history,  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  lo  point  out  a 
single  individual,  in  whom  was  discoverable  so  various  a  combination  of 
literarv  accomplishments.  It  may  also  be  safely  affirmed,  that  ho  seemed 
to  possess  a  mind  which  actually  contained  a  greater  and  more  variegated 
mass  of  knowledge  than  any  other  person  has  been  known  to  possess.  It 
■will  not,  however,  be  suqjrising,  that  his  productions  excited  the  wonder  and 
astonishment  of  mankind,  when  we  reflect,  that  he  had  a  meTfiory  which  at 
any  moment  could  furnish  him  with  all  that  he  had  ever  read,  and  a  judg 
ment  which  could  exactly  combine  and  compare,  analyze  and  aggregate, 
the  most  subtle  reasoning,  and  a  love  of  learning  never  satiated  by  indul 
gence.  A  clear  head  and  nice  discrimination,  a  logical  method  and  mathe 
matical  precision,  rendered  him  one  of  the  most  powerful  reasoners  of  hi? 
age.  A  character  so  eminent,  it  is  not  likely  could  pass  his  own  times 
without  much  animadversion  and  much  praise.  As  he  was  the  most  con- 
spicuous literary  man  of  his  nation,  it  is  not  matter  of  suprise,  that  we  find 
written  of  him  more  than  it  would  be  safe  implicitly  to  credit,  and  presump 
tion  universally  to  disbelieve.  Soon  after  his  death,  he  was  very  justly 
compared  to  the  sick  lion  in  the  fable,  whom,  while  livmg,  few  had  the 
temerity  to  attack,  but  against  whom,  when  in  the  defenceless  state  of  a 
corse,  all  in  whom  the  malignancy  of  envy,  or  the  voice  of  prejudice,  or 
the  excitement  of  resentment  existed,  united  their  assaults  with  rancor  and 
bitterness.  In  many,  the  gratification  of  these  feelings  was  like  the  fury 
of  canine  madness.  They  bit  with  the  mordacity  of  the  viper;  but  the 
impassive  metal  rendered*  retributive  justice  to  their  efforts,  and  the  go<A 
sense  of  mankind  reprobated  their  folly. 

It  is  a  delightful  employment  to  trace  through  the  stages  of  infantine  im 
becility,  the  growth  of  a  genius,  which,  in  the  progressive  gradations  of  ita 
maturity,  expands  like  the  majestic  branches  of  "  the  Pride  of  the  Forest," 
by  slow  degrees,  and  native  hardihood,  acauiring  strength  and  enlargement, 
and  becoming  at  last  a  sublime  emblem  or  independence,  of  fortitude,  and 
durability.  The  development  of  Dr.  Johnson's  mind,  is  a  subject,  from 
the  contemplation  of  which,  we  may  derive  much  pleasure  and  improve- 
ment. It  was  not  like  a  sickly  and  tender  plant,  to  be  nursed  with  the  most 
anxious  solicitude.  It  possessed  a  native  vigor  and  energy,  which  neither 
the  disadvantages  of  an  unpropitious  culture  could  retiurd,  nor  the  blasts  of 
adverse  fortune  could  depress.  The  tempestuous  storms,  to  which  a  nature 
less  hardy  would  liave  yielded,  it  bore  with  iirflexible  firmness;  and,  like  a 
rock  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean,  just  protending  above  the  waves,  bv  which 
it  is  sometimes  overflowed,  and  at  the  refluenco  of  the  billows,  with  haughty 
pride  becomes  again  visible,  it  withstood  the  conflict  of  contending  ele- 
ments. Undaunted  by  difficulties,  from  which  a  mind  not  underserving  of 
respect  would  involuntarily  have  recoiled,  we  observe  it,  in  tlie  progress  of 
his  life,  stomminja;  the  current  of  advereity,  rather  in  the  pride  of  triumpli, 
than  in  the  humiliation  of  despondence.  In  following  hiin  through  the 
dangers  and  hardships  which  ho  too  froqucntlv  had  to  enco*inter,  we  may 
observe  how  wonderfully  his  mind  gained  efViciency  by  resistance ;  andf, 
like  an  impetuous  torrent,  overleaping  the  barriers  of"  its" course,  with  reno- 
Tfttod  strength  ho  overwhelmed  opposition. 

The  ninth  }ear  of  the  eighteenth  century  gave  birth  to  the  man,  who  was 
afterwards  to  become  the  glory  of  his  country,  the  champion  of  his  lan- 
guage, and  the  honor  and  ornament  of  the  literature  of  his  age.  Among 
some  of  the  biographers  of  Dr.  Johnson,  we  discover  a  disposition  to  in- 
dulge in  tales  of  absurdity ;  luscribing  to  him  a  jingle  of  boyish  rhymes  at 
the  ago  of  three  years,  and  leading  readers  to  suppose  him  to"  have  mounted 
his  I'cgasus  betoi-c  he  was  entirely  out  of  the  cradle.  Little  appears  to 
have  been  known  respecting  his  early  childhood,  and  much  less  with  re 
gard  to  the  progress  he  made  in  learning  under  his  earliest  teachers,  both 
of  which  wore  perhaps  of  no  conseauonce ;  stories  of  such  strange  precocity 
usually  carry  with  themselves  their  own  refutation.    The  eailiest  intelb 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  383 

^ence,  upon  which  we  may  rely,  mforms  us,  tht.t  Johnson,  while  at  the 
Litchfield  school,  had  a  standing  scarcely  respectable.  The  only  talent  by 
which  he  was  then  in  any  wise  distinguished,  was  a  remarkable  tenacity  o!" 
memory.  This,  it  will  be  seen,  was  of  the  utmost  importance  to  him.  Af 
ter  a  preparatory  course  in  classical  literature,  we  find  him,  at  the  age  of 
nineteen,  entered  as  a  commoner  in  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  assisting 
the  studies  of  a  young  gentleman,  by  whose  aid  he  was  maintained.  The 
performance  which  first  brought  him  into  notice,  was  the  translation  of 
Fope's  "  Messiah  "  into^  Latin,  which  possessed  no  other  poetical  merit  than 
purity  of  diction.  Circumstances  occurred,  which  deprived  him  of  the  only 
support  upon  which  he  relied ;  the  gentleman  under  his  charge  changing 
his  plan  of  education.  After  various  discouragements,  and  embarrassments 
m  his  pecuniary  resources,  he  was  compelled  to  quit  the  university,  where 
his  residence,  with  little  interruption,  had  been  continued  nearly  three 
years.  Having  endeavored  to  obtain  the  means  of  living  by  assisting  at  a 
public  school,  in  a  short  !ime  he  relinquished  an  employment,  which  yield 
ed  him  little  pleasure,  and  which  became  the  more  irksome  from  a  disgust 
he  had  taken  with  the  person  by  whom  it  was  patronized.  It  was  at  this 
period,  that  a  resort  to  his  pen  became  necessary  for  the  support  of  his  life. 
A_  translation  of  a  voyage  to  Abyssinia,  by  Jerome  Lobo,  a  Portuguese 
missionary,  it  is  believed,  was  the  first  literary  effort  by  which  he  attempted 
to  raise  a  revenue.  In  this  production,  Johnson  discovers  much  of  that 
purity  and  energy  of  diction,  by  which  he  was  afterwards  distinguished. 
An  easy  flow  of  language,  with  a  strength  of  expression,  gave  a  dignity  to 
the  translated  author  he  did  not  naturally  possess.  The  flexibility  and 
harmony  of  the  English  tongue  added  an  importance  and  interest  to  the 
performance,  to  which,  for  its  subsequent  reputation,  it  was  much  indebted. 

In  March,  1737,  Johnson,  in  company  with  David  Garrick,  made  his  entry 
into  London,  each  to  try  his  fortune  on  the  extensive  theatre  of  the  me 
tropolis.  The  former,  hitherto  the  child  of  disaster  and  disappontment 
determined  to  enlarge  the  sphere  in  which  to  crowd  his  way ;  and  both 
were  equally  undaunted  by  the  failure  of  their  schemes. 

The  biographers  of  Johnson  are  unable  to  fix  with  certainty  the  period  at 
which  the  Tragedy  of  "  Irene  "  was  finished.  Though  there  appears  some 
evidence  of  its  completion  prior  to  his  arrival  in  London,  it  was  doomed,  if 
written  at  that  time,  to  slumber  in  obscurity,  until  the  fortune  and  friend 
ship  of  Garrick,  who,  in  1747,  became  one  of  the  managers  of  Drury  Lane 
Theatre,  enabled  him  to  produce  it  on  the  stage.  With  respect  to  the  merits 
of  this  production,  an  observation  which  was  judiciously  applied  to  Addi- 
son's "  Cato,"  may,  with  equal  justice,  be  made:  "It  wants  much  of  that 
contrivance  and  effect,  which  is  best  understood  by  those  who  are  skilled  in 
writing  for  the  stage."  It  is,  in  a  great  measure,  destitute  of  that  style,  and 
those  incidents,  which  would  render  it  intei-esting  to  an  audience;  and 
will  much  better  delight  a  reader  in  the  retirement  of  the  closet,  than  the 
confused  assemblage  of  the  theatre.  The  language  is  dignified  and  forci 
ble,  and  the  sentiments  worthy  of  its  author.  Literary  men,  who  are 
pleased  with  "  chill  philosophy,"  and  "  unaffecting  elegance,"  will  admire  it ; 
readers  of  taste  will  be  deliglited  with  the  beauty  of  some  of  its  sentiments, 
and  many  elegant  passages  which  it  contains,  which  will  long  preserve  it 
from  oblivion.  Garrick,  upon  being  asked  why  he  did  not  produce  another 
tragedy  from  his  Litchfield  friend,  replied,  "  when  Johnson  wi'ites  tragedy, 
passion  sleeps,  and  declamation  roars."  Johnson  himself  appears  to  have 
been  in  some  degree  sensible  of  the  truth  of  such  a  remark,  as  this  was  his 
first  and  only  attempt.  Having  had  a  run  of  thirteen  nights,  Irene  was 
never  after  revived. 

About  the  year  1738,  we  find  him  again  invoking  his  muse,  in  an  imita 
tion  of  Juvenal's  Third  Satire,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  "  London."  It 
has  been  thought,  that,  under  the  name  of  Thales,  he  addresses  his  friend 
Savage,  whose  life  he  subseqently  wrote,  and  with  whom  he  had  previously 


584  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

passed  many  of  his  dissipated  hours.  Savage  was  a  man  of  very  great 
genius,  but  of  an  irregular  and  dissipated  Hfe,  from  , the  contamination  of 
which,  nothing  but  good  principles,  aeep  rooted  which  he  had  early  im- 
bibed, could  have  preserved  the  morals  of  Johnson. 

If  not  among  the  most  important  of  his  efforts,  this  poem,  and  "  The 
Vanity  of  Human  Wishes,"  another  similar  to  it,  in  imitation  of  the  Tenth 
Satire  of  Juvenal,  may  be  esteemed  among  his  most  happy  attempts.  The 
«pirit  and  energy  with  which  he  wrote,  fully  equals  the  poignancy  of  the 
Roman  satirist.  Juvenal  and  Johnson  were  both  engaged  in  the  cause  of 
rirtue,  and  the  poetic  fire  and  sarcastic  severity  of  the  imitation  is  well 
worthy  of  the  original.  The  lines  of  the  English  author  flow  with  all  that 
rrace  and  dignity  with  which  the  Latin  poet  abounds.  That  he  should 
nave  written  with  the  same  ardor  and  animation,  is  natural ;  and  the  accu 
jatorial  strain  of  invective  in  which  he  writes,  does  ample  justice  to  the 
censorial  department  of  the  satirist.  It  is  related  that  Mr.  Pope,  after  read 
ing  his  "  London,"  observed,  in  allusion  to  the  passage  from  Terence,  which 
was  once  applied  to  Milton,  "  Ubi,  ubi  est,  diu  celari  non  potest,"  —  a  re 
mark  which  proved  truly  prophetic. 

It  is  a  melancholy  reflection,  that  the  superior  talents  of  this  eminent 
writer,  at  the  age  of  thirty,  were  scarcely  able  to  provide  him  with  an  in 
come  adequate  to  his  wants.  Being  bred  to  no  profession,  he  was  com 
pelled  to  resort  to  his  pen  as  a  last  resource.  Many  of  his  scnemes  in  pub 
lication  failed  for  want  of  encouragement,  and  others,  in  which  he  succeed 
ed,  proved  of  little  henefit  to  him.  We  find  some  of  his  fugitive  pieces  at 
this  time  appearing  in  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  and  among  them 
several  very  masteny  touches  in  biographical  delineation.  In  biogi-aphy, 
Johnson  peculiarly  excelled.  The  "Lives  of  the  Poets,"  which  he  at  a 
much  later  period  sent  into  the  world,  will  remain  a  lasting  monument  of 
his  genius,  and  critical  sagacity.  Few  perhaps,  more  feelmgly  illustrated 
Juvenal's  axiom, 

"  Haud  facile  emergunt,  quorum  vlrtutlbus  obstat 
Kes  angusta  doinl. ' ' 

But  the  independence  of  his  spirit,  and  the  native  energy  of  his  mind,  ren 
dered  him  little  sensible  to  the  sombre  shades  by  which  fortune  had  sur- 
rounded him. 

His  parliamentary  speeches,  which  appeared  about  this  time,  are  a  model 
of  purity  of  diction,  copiousness  of  language,  and  flowing  eloquence.  In 
reflecting  how  scanty  were  the  materials  from  which  they  were  written,  our 
surprise  and  admiration  are  equally  excited.  His  biographers  relate,  that 
frequently  he  was  only  informed  who  were  the  speakers,  the  order  in  which 
they  spoke,  and  the  sides  they  took.  At  best,  the  notes  which  were  pro 
cured  were  of  but  little  uoe  to' him ;  and  it  is  well  known,  he  was  but  once 
in  Parliament-house  for  this  purpose.  We  are  charmed  with  the  dignity 
and  energy  which  those  speeches  possess.  Without  disparagement,  some  of 
them  may  be  compared  to  the  ancient  specimens  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman 
orators.  In  force  of  stylo,  harmony  of  diction,  and  copiousness  of  expres- 
sion, they  equal  any  instances  of  ancient  or  modern  eloquence. 

Tnere  is  no  view  in  which  Johnson  appears  less  advantageous  than  as  a 
political  writer.  His  warmest  friends  are  ready  to  acknowledge,  that  his 
repntation  would  have  suflered  no  loss,  had  he  never  meddled  with  politics. 
His  arguments,  indeed,  were  ingenious  ;  but  strong  prejudices  and  partiali 
ties  gave  to  his  pen  a  direction  which  his  understanding  could  not  approve, 
and.  in  moments  of  cooler  reflection,  his  conscience  must  have  condemned. 
Witn  the  sentiments  of  a  wami  tory  and  rigid  bigh-churohman,  his  charac 
ter  was  fivqueiitly  exposed  to  much  seventy  of  aspersion  ;  but,  possessed 
with  the  genius  and  reputation  of  the  greatest  scholar  of  his  age,  and  th« 
rirtues  or  a  man,  over  whom  morality  and  religion  lia4  much  influeuce,  he 
nUght  well  defy  tlie  attacks  of  his  enemies. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  38»'^ 

At  about  the  age  of  forty,  he  commenced  a  work  which  added  to  his  rep 
litation,  and  gave  him,  with  no  inconsiderable  degree  of  justice,  the  name 
of  the  English  moralist. 

With  veiy  little  assistance,  he  completed,  in  a  course  of  two  years,  the 
publication  of  the  "  Rambler,"  giving  to  the  world,  on  stated  days,  two 
papers  in  a  week.  It  appears,  that,  though  those  essays  amounted  to  two 
hundred  and  eight,  he  received  but  ten  numbers  from  the  pens  of  his 
friends. 

The  disadvantages  under  which  an  author  labors,  in  periodical  publica 
tions,  whose  frequency  leaves  little  time  for  the  interruptions  of  recreation 
or  necessity,  he  has  most  feelingly  described.  "  He  that  condemns  himself 
to  compose  on  a  stated  day,  will  often  bring  to  his  task  an  attention  dissi- 
pated^  a  memory  embarrassed,  an  imagination  overwhelmed,  a  mind  dis 
tracted  with  anxieties,  a  body  languishing  with  disease ;  he  will  labor  on  a 
barren  topic  till  it  is  too  late  to  change  it ;  or,  in  the  ardor  of  invention, 
diffuse  his  thoughts  into  wild  exuberance,  which  the  present  hour  cannot 
suffer  judgment  to  examine  or  reduce." 

For  depth  of  moral  reflection,  the  "Ramblers"  of  Johnson  must  ever 
be  preeminent.  The  ethics  of  the  ancients  are  not  stored  with  a  more  val 
uable  mass  of  moral  instruction  ;  and  in  vain  may  we  search  for  the  prin 
ciples  'of  the  purest  philosophy,  so  beautifully  blended  with  the  loveliness 
of  virtue.  It  was  not  probable  that  the  frailties  or  peculiarities  of  mankind 
«ould  escape  his  acute  penetration,  which  was  ever  on  the  alert, 

"  To  mark  the  age,  shoot  folly  as  it  flies, 
And  catch  the  manners  living  as  they  rise." 

from  an  early  period,  he  had  accustomed  himself  to  a  habit  of  close  think 
•ng.  His  active  and  vigorous  mind  always  first  matured  what  he  had  to 
idvance,  and  his  confidence  in  his  assertions  was  owing  to  deductions 
A^hich  resulted  from  the  deepest  reasoning. 

ThB  moralizing  "  Rambler  "  is  always  dignified  in  his  sentiments,  logical 
m  hLi  inferences,  and  energetic  in  his  style.  Though  many  of  his  papers 
assume  a  gravity  which  forbids  trifling,  his  remarks  are  sententious  and 
forcible.  They  do  not  always  partake  of  the  sombre  shades  of  melancholy, 
and  seldom  seem  to  participate  of  a  cynical  severity.  The  strain  of  moral- 
ity which  flows  from  his  pen,  discovers  a  mind  at  times  under  the  influence 
ot  gloomy  reflections,  and  inclined  to  indulge  in  the  sober  feelings  of  a  man 
prone  to  look  upon  the  darkest  side.  Instruction  and  sublimity  may  be 
found  in  his  papers.  The  majority  of  mankind  will  admire  them  in  the  re- 
tirement of  the  closet,  when  the  mind  is  inclined  to  serious  advice ;  and 
the  friends  of  virtue  will  ever  rejoice  that  the  great  learning  of  the  critic 
and  scholar  has  so  successfully  labored  in  her  service.  The  papers  of  the 
"  Idler,"  and  those  of  the  "  Adventurer,"  written  by  Johnson,  exhibit  the 
game  powers  of  mind,  and  fewer  of  his  peculiar  faults. 

As  a  Latin  poet,  he  can  only  be  ranked  with  other  admired  writers,  who 
attempted  metrical  excellence  in  a  language  that  allows  no  new  expressions. 
The  most  successful  writer  can  do  no  more  than  imitate  the  flowers  which 
ne  has  discovered  on  classic  groimd,  and  display  to  the  world  his  acquaint- 
ance with  its  productions.  He  may  heat  his  mind  with  the  spirit  with 
which  the  poets  of  antiquity  have  written.  He  may  imbibe  a  portion  of 
their  taste,  and,  as  far  as  he  is  able,  copy  their  style.  His  productions,  in 
their  language,  will  still  fail  of  originality,  and  savor  of  imitation. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  the  affair  in  which  Johnson  was  con 
nected  with  Lauder,  was  always  to  himself  a  source  of  regret.  His  integ 
rity,  it  may  safely  be  presumedj  would  have  withholden  him  from  giving 
countenance  to  an  attempt  to  injure  the  reputation  of  the  immortal  Milton, 
had  he  been  at  first,  as  he  afterwards  was,  convinced  of  the  injustice  of  the 
cause  in  which  he  engaged.  The  recantation  he  extorted  from  the  pei-son 
88 


386  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

who  had  thus  inveigled  him  into  this  infamous  plan,  made  honorable  amends 
to  the  injured  character  of  the  poet.  That  he  had  been  made  a  dupe  to 
the  duniicity  of  the  enemy  of  Milton,  could,  in  his  own  feelings,  be  but 
little  alleviated  by  an  acknowledgrnent  of  his  crime.  As  he  harboured  no 
malevolence  of  feeling  towards  this  sublime  writer,  posterity  have  little  of 
which  to  accuse  him ;  as  the  best  men  may  at  times  be  deceived,  espe- 
cially when  the  influence  of  party  feelings  fosters  their  prejudices,  and 
gives  to  the  judgment,  for  a  moment,  a  bias,  which  calm  reflection,  and 
dispassionate  examination,  afterwards  perceives,  acknowledges,  and  cor- 
rects. 

His  "  English  Dictionary  "  will  long  remain  a  lasting  record  of  the  pow- 
erful mind  of  Dr.  Johnson.  By  it,  he  has  fixed  the  standard  of  our  lan- 
guage, and,  with  the  most  indefatigable  labor  and  acuteness,  given  precision 
to  the  meaning  of  our  words,  which,  hitherto,  had  been  too  much  neglected 
by  the  lexicographers  who  preceded  him.  He  has  pruned  of  their  excres- 
cences the  indeterminate  signification  of  many  terms,  and  placed  in  appro 
priate  gradations  the  fluctuating  import  of  many  expressions.  Until  his 
time  there  had  been  no  author  upon  whose  judgment  the  world  seemed 
implicitly  to  rely ;  and  time  has  smce  proved,  that  the  stupendous  labor, 
and  powerful  talents  of  Johnson  have  left  nothing  for  succeeding  lexico- 
grapners  to  do  in  defining  the  English  language. 

His  benevolent  feelings  ofton  engaged  him  in  the  service  of  many  for 
whom  he  had  little  friendshiL,  and  who  could  lay  no  claim  to  the  assistance 
of  his  pen.  The  number  of  dedications,  prologues,  and  recommendatory 
effusions  which  issued  from  it,  in  behalf  of  indigent  merit,  or  unaspiring 
modesty,  at  once  illustrates  the  kindness  of  his  heart,  and  the  disinterest- 
edness of  his  motives. 

During  a  season,  in  which  his  mind  was  oppressed  with  the  gloomy  re- 
flections of  affliction,  occasioned  by  the  loss  of  his  aged  mother,  to  whom 
he  was  tenderly  and  afiectionately  attached,  it  is  re'.ated,  that  he  wrote  his 
"  Rassclas."  This  elegant  specimen  of  Oriental  in-jgery,  we  are  told,  was 
written  during  the  evenings  of  a  single  week,  to  e./able  him  to  defray  the 
funeral  expenses  of  his  deceased  parent.  Perhaps  there  is  no  prosaic  eff"u 
sion,  in  which  the  exuberance  ana  harmony  of  our  language  has  been  more 
artfully  combined,  or  more  fully  displayed.  It  is  here  that  he  discovers 
those  surprising  powers  of  imagination,  which  were  the  astonishment  and 
admiration  of  mankind.  Though  the  strain  of  moralizing  reflection,  which 
pervades  the  whole  story,  seems  to  partake  of  the  gloomy  shades  which  oc 
casionally  overshadowed  his  mind,  it  may  yet  be  questioned,  if  the  world 
will  again  soon  be  favored  with  a  trifle,  from  any  pen,  in  which  it  may  be, 
at  the  same  time,  more  delighted  and  improved. 

In  the  poetry  of  Dr.  Johnson,  if  we  do  not  discover  the  harmony  which 
deliglitA  a  musical  ear,  we  are  fullv  compensated  by  an  energy  of  expres- 
sion, a  lofty  stylo,  and  a  critical  elegance  of  diction.  The  majesty  of  hia 
numbers  resembles  the  tones  of  a  powerful  instrument,  not  discordant  by 
the  strength  of  their  parts.  His  versificatioii  cannot  boast  of  an  unbroken 
melody,  but  his  measures  flow  like  the  slow  and  solemn  progress  of  a 
mighty  river,  rather  than  like  the  graceful  glidings  of  a  shallow  stream.  If 
he  does  not  possess  the  smcwthness  of  poetical  numbers,  the  ear  is  not  fa- 
tijj^icd  by  the  sameness  of  his  style  ;  and  we  may  continue  to  be  delighted 
with  the  variety  and  dignity  of  his  expressions,  when  we  should  be  glad  to 
be  relieved  from  the  monotonous  harmony  of  poets  of  more  musical  ears. 

Johnson  had  for  some  time  been  solicited  by  his  bookseller  to  undertak« 
the  editorial  department  in  a  splendid  edition  of  the  British  Poets.  Thii 
was  tlie  \wt  great  effort  of  his  mind.  His  reputation  needed  not,  at  thii 
w?riod.  an  accession  to  give  permanency  to  his  fame;  yet  another  laure. 
was  added  to  grace  his  brow. 

This  stupentlous  publication,  which  was  to  be  comprised  in  seventy  vol- 
umes, iu  the  course  of  a  few  years  was  oflTered  to  the  world,  with  the  lives 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  387 

of  each  author  prefixed,  containing  critical  observations  on  their  writings. 
These  prefaces  were  afterwards  republished  in  four  separate  volumes,  to 
which  was  given  the  title  of  Johnson's  "  Lives  of  the  Poets."  It  is  here 
that  the  philosophical  talents  of  this  great  man  were  fully  developed.  If  a 
vigorous  understanding,  a  sound  judgment,  a  scmtinizing  penetration,  com 

f)rehensive  knowledge,  and  a  discriminating  sagacity,  were  qualificationfi 
or  such  an  undertaking,  it  would  have  been  difficult  to  discover  an  indi 
vidual  Avhose  native  energy  of  mind,  and  critical  talents,  more  peculiarly 
fitted  him  than  Johnson.  He  possessed  the  ability  to  discern,  the  judgment 
to  commend,  and  the  taste  to  admire  the  excellences  of  his  authors,  while, 
at  the  same  time,  he  had  the  independence  to  condemn  their  failings,  even 
should  his  animadversions  be  in  opposition  to  public  opinion.  The  man 
who  would  singly  dispute  the  admiration  of  his  contemporaries,  chooses  foi 
nimself  a  hazardous  undertaking.  But  the  mind  of  Johnson  did  not  deign 
to  stoop  to  vulgar  prejudices,  and  his  nobleness  of  spirit  spurned  at  oppos 
ing  the  dictates  of  truth  and  sound  judgment,  though  error  was  popular  in 
the  best  of  company.  When  we  compare  the  decision  of  his  criticisms 
with  the  rules  of  taste,  and  the  learned  Institutes  of  Aristotle  and  QuintU 
ian,  we  are  irresistibly  compelled  to  revere  his  opinions.  The  "  Lives  of 
the  English  Poets"  may  justly  be  considered  as  the  noblest  specimen  of 
elegant  and  solid  criticism  M'hich  any  age  has  produced.  It  is,  however,  a 
matter  of  surprise,  that  he  should  have  included  many  in  his  list  cf  Eng 
lish  Poets,  who  are  much  less  entitled  to  this  distinction,  than  others,  who 
are  omitted.  In  all  his  work  he  gives  no  excuse  for  excluding  the  admired 
author  of  the  Fairy  Queen. 

His  enemies  accuse  him  of  writing,  in  his  life  of  Milton,  with  a  mind 
warped  by  unmanly  prejudice,  and  mingling  the  feelings  of  party  spirit 
and  bigotry  in  his  delineation  of  the  poet.  If  he  has  not  bestowed  the  just 
meed  of  panegyric  as  the  biographer  of  Milton,  all  must  allow  that  he  has 
done  him  ample  justice  as  his  commentator.  His  criticism  of  "  Paradise 
Lost  "  would  have  done  honor  to  any  pen.  As  that  poem  is  a  production 
which  the  genius  of  Milton  only  could  have  produced,  so  the  criticism  of 
Johnson  is  such  as  only  Johnson  could  hiive  written. 

His  "  Life  of  Pope  "  is  a  masterly  dlort  of  acute  judgment  and  critical 
skill.  He  was,  perhaps,  as  justly  able  to  estimate  the  genius  and  poetical 
talents  of  that  English  bard,  as  any  man  living.  Friendship  had  induced 
him  to  write  the  "Life  of  Savage,"  which  is  prized  as  one  of  the  finest 
pieces  of  biography  now  extant.  His  other  lives  more  or  less  partake  of 
the  genius  of  a  wnter,  who,  for  nervoiis  elegance  and  justness  of  sentiment, 
has  scarcely  a  competitor.  His  two  prefaces,  the  one  to  his  "  English  Dic- 
tionary," the  other  to  an  edition  of  Shakspeare,  which  was  published  under 
his  superintendence,  will  long  remain  the  astonishment  and  admiration  of 
mankind.  Few  writers  have  obtained  any  approach  to  competition  with 
these  pieces.  Though  entirely  different  in  their  subject,  the  same  close 
ness  of  thought,  purity  of  diction,  nervous  strength,  and  dignity  of  style, 
in  each  are  equally  conspicuous.  Never  had  an  estimate  of  the  genius  and 
merits  of  Shakspeare  been  given  to  the  world,  to  which  it  would  have  been 
safe  to  yield  implicit  credence.  The  truth  was,  no  one  had  perfectly  un 
derstood  him.  He  threw  light  upon  parts  of  his  character,  which  had  never 
before  been  exposed  to  view.  Learned  investigation  enabled  Johnson  to  see 
his  author  in  an  aspect  which  previous  commentators  had  either  never 
noticed,  or  never  had  the  sagacity  to  discern.  He  compares  his  perform 
ances  with  the  rules  which  the  genius  of  antiquity  had  discovered  and  il 
lustrated,  and  not  with  the  prejudices  of  modern  arrogance  and  imbecility 
He  gave  the  most  exalted  commendation  to  a  mind,  whose  intuitive  intelli 
gence  rendered  the  laborious  acquirement  of  knowledge,  and  the  culture  of 
study,  as  but  a  secondary  assistance  to  its  operations ;  and,  though  mankind 
Bhould  place  but  little  value  upon  his  commentaries  on  the  text,  they  may 
j"6tly  feel  indebted  for  his  development  of  the  genius  of  Shakspeare.    It  ia 


888  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

not  a  matter  of  wonder,  that  the  exquisitely  beautiful  preface  to  the  editioa 
of  Shakspeare's  plays,  should  lay  claim  to  such  superlative  merit.  Wheth- 
er we  regard  the  abundance  and  classical  selection  of  its  allusions,  the  ac 
curacy  and  justice  of  the  criticisms,  or  its  just  appreciation  of  the  excel- 
lences and  defects  of  the  poet,  it  is  equally  the  subject  of  admiration. 

The  Uterary  character  of  Dr.  Johnson,  may,  perhaps,  receive  illustration 
by  examining  his  life,  as  well  as  by  criticising  his  writings.  That  prejudice 
should  have  found  no  place  in  a  mind  of  such  astonishing  energy,  would 
seem  as  wonderful  as  it  must  have  been  rare.  It  would  seem  eauallj^  strange, 
if  his  antipatnies  were  not  sometimes  manifested  in  the  heat  of  passion,  or  in 
the  ardor  of  debate.  The  Scotch  and  Dissenters,  the  scholars  of  Cambridge 
and  the  Whigs,  were  often  mentioned  with  more  acrimony  than  discretion. 
There  was,  perhaps,  no  man  who  more  strenuously  advocated  the  principles 
of  subordination,  and  few  who  displayed  them  less  in  practice.  The  tempers 
of  men  are  more  under  the  influence  of  external  circumstances  than  moral 
writers  in  general  are  disposed  to  allow.  Dr  Johnson  too  severely  felt  the 
weight  of  disappointment  and  penury  in  his  early  years.  At  a  later  period, 
ho  was  gratified  by  applause  and  universal  adulation.  Can  it  be  wonderful, 
then,  that,  with  the  strong  feelings  of  vigorous  passions,  and  the  common 
failings  of  human  nature,  he  should,  at  times,  be  carried  away  in  conversa- 
tion, and  in  hasty  compositions,  farther  than  his  maturer  judgment  would 
sanction,  or  the  better  feelings  of  his  heart  approve.  There  were  few  men 
whose  colloquial  powers  could  give  more  delight  to  those  around  him, 
and  scarcely  another  whose  insulted  feelings  were  more  awfuUv  dreaded. 
Though  he  might  not  psiss  for  a  scientific  scnolar,  the  world  can  "have  little 
reason  to  doubt  the  extent  of  his  learning,  or  the  unbounded  range  of  his 
information.  His  desultory  manner  of  reading  made  his  knowledge  more 
comprehensive  than  miiuite ;  and  his  quickness  of  perception  gave  him  an 
astonishing  facility  in  grasping  the  ideas  of  an  author  without  tiring  his 
patience  by  perusmg  a  whole  book.  His  extraordinary  powers  of  under- 
standing were  much  cultivated  by  studyj  and  still  more  by  reflection.  The 
accuracy  of  his  obseiwations,  and  the  justness  of  his  remarks,  were  the 
result  01  mature  deliberation  and  depth  of  meditation,  before  he  uttered  his 
«entiments;  and  his  memory  furnished  him  with  an  inexhaustible  fund, 
from  which  his  reasonings  were  assisted  and  enforced.  The  aptness  of  his 
illustrations  was  a  strong  evidence  of  the  sagacity  of  his  perceptions,  and 
the  soundness  of  his  judgment.  His  observations  received  additional 
weight  from  the  loudness  of  his  voice,  and  the  solemnity  with  which  they 
were  delivered.  The  sophistry  of  an  antagonist  always  fell  a  prey  to  the 
piercing  glance  of  his  penetration ;  and  he  became  the  more  elated  by 
triinnph  when  his  o])ponent8  had  been  most  decided.  The  great  originality 
which  appeared  in  his  writings,  resulted  from  an  activity  of  mind,  whicn 
habit  had  accustomed  to  reason  with  precision.  His  conceptions  of  things 
sprang  not  from  idle  thought  or  indolent  reflection,  but  from  the  keen  en 
ergies  of  a  vigorous  intellect,  assisted  by  the  cfibrts  of  a  soaring  imagination. 
His  conversation  was  striking,  interesting,  and  instructive,  and  required  no 
exertion  to  bo  understood,  from  the  perspicuity  and  force  of  his  remarks; 
aiul  Ills  zeal  for  the  interests  of  religion  and  virtue  was  often  manifested  in 
lii.s  discourse.  Ho  was  expert  at  aigiuncntation,  and  the  schools  of  decla- 
mniion  couUl  not  boast  of  a  moro  subtle  reasoner,  or  a  more  artful  sophist, 
when  his  side  was  a  bad  one ;  for  he  often  disputed  as  much  for  the  sake 
of  victory  as  of  truth.  His  answers  were  so  powerful,  that  few  dared  to 
engage  with  him.  Universal  submission,  it  is  likely,  gave  an  apparent 
dogmatism  which  lie  otherwise  might  not  have  possessed.  If  there  was  an 
aspect  of  harsh  severity  in  his  retorts,  it  should  bo  remembered,  how  fre 
qucntly  they  were  provoked  by  the  insults  of  impertinence  and  the  conceit  of 
igiionuice.  The  specious  garb  of  dissimulation  he  despised.  A  noble  spirit 
of  indepedence  actuated  his  demeanor.  He  did  not  violate  the  integrity  of 
his  feelings  by  stooping  to  gratify  the  pride  of  rank,  when  unaccompanied 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  389 

by  a  superiority  of  intellect  commensurate  with  its  dignity.  His  utter 
abhorrence  of  flattery  and  adulation  lost  him  that  patronage  of  the  great, 
which  he  otherwise  might  probably  sooner  have  acquired ;  and  he  rose  to 
eminence  rather  by  the  unassisted  efforts  of  his  own  genius,  than  the  en- 
couragements of  the  rich  and  the  learned.  He  was  little  indebted  to  the 
assistance  of  his  friends  for  his  great  reputation.  The  irresistible  energy  of 
his  character  carried  him  through  all  his  difficulties  with  an  unbroken  spirit, 
and  an  unblemished  fame.  If  he  paid  not  his  court  to  the  noble,  it  was  not 
from  disrespect  to  the  subordinations  of  rank  in  society,  bvit  a  dislike  to  the 
arts  of  dissimulation,  and  an  aversion  to  the  degradation  of  science  at  the 
»hrine  of  pati'onage.  His  sarcastic  letter  to  the  Earl  of  Chesterfield  is  a 
noble  specimen  of  his  independence  of  spirit,  and  his  contempt  of  the  ser 
vile  arts  of  adulation.  It  is  a  feeling  exposition  of  the  hardships  he  had 
endured,  until  royal  munificence  placed  him  beyond  the  boundaries  of 
want,  and  smoothed  his  descent  to  the  grave. 

His  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language,  in  comparison  with  his  acquaint 
ance  with  the  Latin,  was  superficial.  In  his  early  years,  he  had  devote(r 
himself  so  closely  to  the  study  of  the  ancient  poets,  that  it  may  be  ques- 
tioned, if  his  familiarity  with  them  in  his  own  times  could  find  a  superior 
His  decisive  denunciations  against  the  genuineness  of  Ossian's  poems, 
created  him  many  opponents,  upon  a  subject,  respecting  which,  "  truth  had 
never  been  established,  or  fallacy  detected." 

It  is  not  a  little  strange,  that,  in  many  instances,  the  biographers  of 
Johnson  have  appeared  like  enemies.  It  may,  however,  be  observed,  that 
few  men  could  have  stood  the  ordeal  to  which  the  minuteness  of  Boswell 
exposed  him,  with  so  much  honor  to  the  reputation  of  their  heart  and  their 
head.  This  mighty  Caliban  of  literature  is  here  stripped  of  every  disguise, 
and  held  up  to  public  view.  Though  the  world  has  been  delighted  and 
improved  by  the  record  of  his  converation,  in  which  his  learning,  his  genius, 
and  his  undisguised  sentiments  have  so  conspicuously  shone  forth,  it  cannot 
but  be  allowed,  that  it  is  informed  of  much,  which  it  was  not  important, 
and,  perhaps,  was  not  proper  for  it  to  know ;  and  that  the  coloring  which 
the  painter  has  given  to  his  portrait,  will  admit  of  many  different  shades, 
from  which  the  partiality  of  friendship  should  have  guarded  his  pencil.  It 
is  here,  however,  that  we  may  trace  the  incredible  vastness  of  an  intellect, 
destined  to  become  the  glorj'  of  his  country,  and  the  pride  of  English 
literature. 

We  may  contemplate  the  gigantic  powers  of  Johnson's  mind  with  feel 
ings  similar  to  those  sublime  emotions  with  which  we  view  the  boundless 
expanse  of  the  ocean,  fathomless  to  human  measurement,  and  whose  ca 
pacity  exceeds  our  conception.  In  his  writings  appears  more  conspicuously 
than  "in  his  conversation  the  compass  and  extent  of  his  understanding.  _  His 
faculties  were  vigorous,  his  curiosity  and  avidity  for  knowledge  insatiable 
and  unlimited,  his  mind  vehement  and  ardent,  the  combinations  of  his 
fancy  various  and  original,  and  his  imagination  neither  clouded  or  depress 
ed  by  the  discipline  of  study,  or  the  misfortunes  of  life.  His  readers  are 
delighted  and  astonished  at  the  wonderful  beauty  of  his  conceptions,  and 
the  depth  of  reflection  which  his  opinions  discover.  In  his  style  he  is  dig 
nified  and  forcible,  in  his  language  elegant  and  copious.  He  gives  to  every 
word  its  true  meaning,  and  its  illustrative  purport.  His  epithets  are  used 
with  judgment  and  discrimination.  Every  thing  which  he  says  has  a  deter 
minate  significancy,  and  his  words  convey  no  more  than  the  import  of  his 
conceptions.  If  he  introduces  hard  words,  their  peculiar  adaptation  to  hia 
meaning  should  atone  for  his  grandiloquism.  It  should  also  be  remembered, 
that  Cicero  introduced  Greek  terms,  v/hen  treating  upon  learned  subjects, 
to  supply  the  deficiency  of  the  Roman  language,  and  that  the  "  great  and 
comprehensive  conceptions  of  Johnson  could  not  easily  be  expressed  by 
common  words." 

Should  it  be  thought  that  the  style  of  this  learned  author  has  injui-ed  f^vn 
33* 


890  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

language,  he  must  have  committed  this  injury  by  making  it  more  subor 
dinate  to  grammatical  rules.  Foreigners  and  future  generations  will  be 
more  capable  of  understanding  it,  since  he  has  excluded  expressions  which 
are  only  to  be  found  in  colloquial  intercourse  and  vulgar  phraseology. 
From  his  example,  men  may  learn  to  give  to  their  style  energy,  perspicuity, 
and  elegance.  They  may  acquire  a  habit  of  close  thinking,  and  become 
accustomed  to  express  their  ideas  with  force  and  precision. 

His  political  writings  will  be  read  and  admired  only  for  the  dignity  and 
energy  of  their  style.  His  compositions  arc  a  most  valuable  addition  to  the 
literature  of  his  country,  and  will  confer  a  lasting  reputation  on  his  name. 
They  are  replete  with  "  useful  instruction,  and  elegant  entertainment,"  and 
by  perusing  them,  mankind  may  advance  in  knowledge  and  virtue.  The 
efforts  of  his  mind  discover  a  life  of  study  and  meditation.  His  writings 
display  a  genius  cultivated  with  industry,  and  quickened  by  exertion,  ifis 
multifarious  productions  are  an  honor  to  the  English  nation  ;  and  his  answer 
to  his  sovereign  might  more  fairly  be  allowed,  "  that  he  had  written  his 
share,"  if  lie  had  not  loritten  so  weu.  His  mind  has  been  laid  open  to  the 
public  in  his  printed  works,  without  "  reservation  or  disguise  ;  "  and,  with 
all  his  faults  and  failings,  he  is  still  the  admiration  of  mankind. 


xcvn. 

ON  TlIE  COMPOSITION  OF  A  SERMON.* 

On  the  Clioice  of  Texts. 

There  are,  in  general,  five  parts  of  a  sermon:  the  exordium,  the  con 
nexion,  the  division,  the  discussion,  and  the  application  ;  but  as  connexion 
and  division  are  parts  which  ought  to  be  extremelv  short,  we  can  properly 
reckon  only  three  parts  :  exordium,  discussion,  and  aj)plication.  However, 
we  will  just  take  notice  of  connexion  and  division  alter  we  have  spoken  a 
little  on  the  choice  of  texts,  and  a  few  general  rules  of  disciissing  them. 

1.  Never  choose  such  texts  as  have  not  complete  sense  ;  for  only  imper 
tinent  and  foolish  people  will  attempt  to  preach  from  one  or  two  words 
which  signify  nothing. 

2.  Not  only  words  which  have  a  complete  sense  of  themselves  must  be 
taken,  but  they  must  also  include  the  complete  sense  of  the  writer  whose 
words  they  are ;  for  it  is  his  language,  and  they  are  his  sentiments,  which 
vou  explain,  For  example,  sliould  you  take  these  words  of  2  Cor.  1:  3. 
"  Blessed  bo  CJod,  tlin  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  Father  of  mer- 
cies, and  the  (Ux\  of  all  comfort,"  and  stop  here,  you  will  include  a  com- 
plete sense  ;  but  it  would  not  be  the  Apostle's  sense.  Should  you  go  farther, 
and  add,  "  who  comfortcth  us  in  ail  our  tribulation,"  it  would  not  then  be 
the  complete  sense  of  JSt.  Paul,  nor  would  his  meaning  be  wholly  taken  in, 
unless  you  went  t/)  the  end  of  the  fourth  verse.  When  the  coniplete  sense 
of  the  sacred  writer  is  taken,  you  may  stop  ;  for  there  are  few  texts  in  Scrip- 
tiire,  which  do  not  afford  matter  sufli'cientfor  a  sermon,  and  it  is  equally  in- 
convenient to  take  too  much  text  or  too  little  ;  both  extremes  must  be 
•voided. 

♦  Theao  djrectlonn  «nrt  mmarks  are  taken  fW)m  Hannam's  "  Pulpit  Assistant.  '  Th« 
student  will  also  find  much  aid  from  Grcsley's  "  Treatise  on  Preaching." 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  391 

tieneral  rules  of  sermons.     1.  A  sermon  should  clearly  and  purely  ex- 

Elain  a  text,  make  the  sens3  easily  to  be  comprehended,  and  place  things 
efore  the  people's  eyes,  so  that  they  may  be  understood  without  difficulty. 
This  rule  condemns  embarrassment  and  obscurity,  the  most  disagreeable 
thing  in  tue  world  in  a  gospel  pulpit.  It  ought  to  be  remembered,  that  the 
greatest  part  of  the  hearers  are  simple  people,  whose  profit,  however,  must 
be  aimed  at  in  preaching :  but  it  is  impossible  to  edify  them,  unless  you  be 
very  clear.  Bishop  Burnett  says,  "  a  preacher  is  to  fancy  himself  as  in  the 
room  of  the  most  unlearned  man  in  the  whole  parish,  and  must  therefore 
put  such  parts  of  his  discourses  as  he  would  have  all  understand,  in  so  plain 
a  form  of  words,  that  it  may  not  be  beyond  the  meanest  of  them.  This  he 
will  certainly  study  to  do,  if  his  desire  be  to  edify  them,  rather  than  to  make 
them  admire  himself  as  a  learned  and  high  spoken  man." 

2.  A  sermon  must  give  the  entire  sense  of  the  whole  text,  in  order  to 
which  it  musi  be  considered  in  every  view.  This  rule  condemns  dry  and 
barren  explications,  wherein  the  preacher  discovers  neither  study  nor  in- 
vention, and  leaves  unsaid  a  great  number  of  beautiful  things  with  which 
his  text  might  have  furnished  him.  In  matters  of  religion  and  piety,  not  to 
edify  much  is  to  destroy  much  ;  and  a  sermon  cold  and  poor  will  do  more 
mischief  in  an  hour,  than  a  hundred  rich  sermons  can  do  good. 

3.  The  preacher  must  be  wise,  in  opposition  to  those  impertinent  people 
who  utter  jests,  comical  comparisons,  quirks,  and  extravagances  ;  sober,  in 
opposition  to  those  rash  spirits  who  would  penetrate  all,  and  curiously  dive 
mto  mysteries  beyond  the  bounds  of  modesty ;  chaste,  in  opposition  to 
those  bold  and  imprudent  geniuses  who  are  not  ashamed  of  saying  many 
things  which  produce  unclean  ideas  in  the  mind. 

4.  A  preacher  must  be  simple  and  grave.  Simple,  speaking  things  of 
good  natural  sense,  without  metaphysical  speculations  ;  grave,  because  all 
sorts  of  vulgar  and  proverbial  sayings  ought  to  be  avoided.  The  pulpit  is 
tlie  seat  of  good  natural  sense,  and  the  good  sense  of  good  men. 

5.  The  understanding  must  be  informed,  but  in  a  manner,  however 
which  affects  the  heart ;  either  to  comfort  the  hearers,  or  to  excite  them  tc 
acts  of  piety,  repentance,  or  holiness. 

6.  One  of  the  most  important  precepts  for  the  discussion  of  a  text,  and 
the  composition  of  a  sermon,  is,  above  all  things,  to  avoid  excess :  — 

1.  There  must  not  be  too  much  genius.  I  mean,  not  too  many  brilliant 
yiarkling,  and  shining  things :  for  they  would  produce  very  bad  effects 
The  auditor  will  never  fail  to  say,  "  The  man  preaches  himself,  aims  to  dis 
play  his  genius,  and  is  not  animated  by  the  spirit  of  God,  but  by  that  of 
the  world." 

2.  A  Sermon  must  not  be  overcharged  with  doctrine,  because  the  hearers' 
memories  cannot  retain  it  aU ;  and  by  aiming  to  keep  all,  they  will  lose 
all.     Take  care,  then,  not  to  charge  your  sermon  with  too  much  matter. 

3.  Care  must  also  be  taken  never  to  strain  any  particular  part,  either  m 
attempting  to  exhaust  it,  or  to  penetrate  too  far  into  it.  Frequently  in  at 
tempting  it,  you  will  distil  the  subject  till  it  evaporates. 

4.  Figures  must  not  be  overstrained.  This  is  done  by  stretching  meta 
Dhor  into  allegory,  or  by  carrying  a  parallel  too  far.  A  metaphor  is  changed 
into  an  allegory  when  a  number  of  things  are  heaped  up,  which  agree  to 
the  subject  in  keeping  close  to  the  metaphor.  Allegories  may  sometimes 
be  used  very  agreeably  :  but  they  must  not  be  strained :  that  is,  all  that 
can  be  said  of  them  must  not  be  said. 

5.  Reasonir.g  must  not  be  carried  too  far.  This  may  be  done  man^ 
ways ;  either  by  long  trains  of  reasons,  composed  of  a  number  of  proposi 
tions  chained  together,  or  principles  and  consequences,  which  way  of  rea 
ooning  is  embarrassing  and  painful  to  the  auditor.  The  mind  of  man  loves 
to  be  conducted  in  a  more  smooth  anJ  easy  way. 

Of  connexion.  The  connexion  is  the  relation  of  your  text  to  the  forego 
ijg  or  following  verses.  To  find  this,  consider  the  scope  of  the  discourse 
and  coasult  commentators  ;  particularly  exercise  your  own  good  sense 


392  AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

When  the  coherence  will  furnish  any  agreesible  considerations  for  th« 
illustrations  of  the  text,  they  must  be  put  in  the  discussion  ;  and  they  will 
very  often  happen.  Sometimes,  also,  you  maj  draw  thence  an  exordium  ; 
in  such  a  case,  the  exordium  and  connexion  will  be  confounded  together. 

Of  division.  Division  in  general  ought  to  be  restrained  to  a  small  num 
ber  of  parts ;  they  should  never  exceed  four  or  five  at  the  most ;  the  mosf 
admired  sermons  have  only  two  or  three  parts. 

Tkere  are  two  sorts  of  divisions  which  we  may  very  properly  make ;  the 
first,  which  is  the  most  common,  is  the  division  of  the  text  into  its  parts 
the  other  is  of  the  discourse,  or  sermon  itself,  which  is  made  on  the  text. 

1.  This  method  is  proper  when  a  prophecy  of  the  Old  Testament  is 
handled ;  for,  generally,  tue  understanding  of  these  prophecies  depends  on 
many  general  considerations,  which,  by  exposing  and  refuting  false  senses, 
open  a  way  to  the  tnie  explication. 

2.  This  method  is  also  proper  on  a  text  taken  from  a  dispute,  the  under 
standing  of  which  must  depend  on  the  state  of  the  question,  the  hypothesis 
of  adversaries,  and  the  principles  of  the  inspired  writers.  All  these  lights 
are  previously  necessary,  and  they  can  only  be  given  by  general  considera 
tions ;  for  example,  Rom.  iii.  28.  "  We  conclude  that  a  man  is  justified 
by  faith  without  the  deeds  of  the  law."  Some  general  considerations 
must  precede,  which  clear  up  the  state  of  the  question  between  St.  Paul 
and  the  Jews,  touching  justification,  which  mark  the  hypothesis  of  the  Jews 
upon  that  subject,  and  which  discover  the  true  principle  which  St.  Paul 
would  establish ;  so  that,  in  the  end,  the  text  may  be  clearly  understood. 

3.  This  method  also  is  proper  in  a  conclusion  drawn  from  a  long  preced 
ing  discourse;  as  for  example,  Rom.  v.  1.  "Therefore  being  justified  by 
fmth,  we  have  peace  with  God,  through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  The  dis 
course  must  be  divided  into  two  parts ;  the  first  consisting  of  some  general 
considerations  on  the  doctrine  of  justification,  which  St.  Paul  establishes 
in  the  preceding  chapters ;  and  the  second  of  his  conclusion,  that,  being 
thus  justified,  we  have  peace  with  God,  &c. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  first  verse  of  the  eighth  of  Romans,  "  There 
is,  therefore,  now  no  condemnation,"  &c.,  for  it  is  b  consequence  drawn 
from  what  he  had  been  establishing  before. 

4.  The  same  method  is  nroper  for  texts  which  are  quoted  in  the  Ne-w 
Testament  from  the  Old.  You  must  prove  by  general  considerations  that 
the  text  is  properly  produced,  and  then  you  may  come  clearly  to  its  expli- 
cation. Of  this  kind  are  Hebrews  i.  5,  6.  "  I  will  be  to  him  a  Father,"  &a 
"One  in  a  certain  place  testified,"  &c.,  ii.  6.  "Wherefore  as  the  Holj 
Ghost  saith,"  &c.,  iii.  7.  There  are  many  passages  of  this  kind  in  the  New 
Testament 

5.  In  this  class  must  be  placed  divisions  into  different  regards,  or  differ 
ent  views.  These,  to  speak  properly,  are  not  divisions  of  a  text  into  its 
parts,  but  rather  diircrcnt  applications  which  are  made  of  the  same  texts  to 
divers  subjects.  Tynical  texts  should  be  divided  thus  ;  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  Passages  in  the  Psalms,  which  relate  not  only  to  David,  but  alfeo  to 
Jesus  Christ.  Such  should  be  considered,  first,  literally,  as  they  relate  to 
David ;  and  then,  in  the  mystical  sense,  as  they  refer  to  the  Lord  Jesus. 

There  are  also  typical  passages,  which,  besi(les  their  literal  sense,  have 
also  figurative  meanings,  relating  not  only  to  Jesus  Christ,  but  also  to  the 
church  in  general,  and  to  every  believer  In  particular. 

For  examiilc,  Dan.  ix.  7:  »*0  Lord,  righteousness  belongeth  to  thee,  but 
unto  us  confusion  of  face,  as  at  this  dav, "  must  not  be  divided  into  parts, 
but  considered  in  different  views :  1.  lii  regard  to  all  men  in  general.  2. 
In  regard  to  the  .lewish  Church  in  Daniel's  time.  3.  In  regard  to  ourselves 
at  this  present  day. 

So  again,  Heb.  *iii.  7,  8.  "ToKlay,  if  ye  will  hear  his  voice,"  which  is 
taken  from  I  salm  xcv.,  cannot  be  better  divided  than  by  referring  it—  1. 
lo  David's  time.    2.  St.  Paul's.    And  h\sUy,  to  our  cwu. 


ALBS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  393 

As  to  the  division  of  the  text  itself,  sometimes  the  order  of  the  words  is 
so  clear  and  natural,  that  no  division  is  necessary,  you  need  only  follow 
simply  tne  order  of  the  words.  As  for  example,  Eph.  i.  3.  "Blessed  be 
the  God  and  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  hath  blessed  us  with  all 
spiritual  blessings  in  heavenly  places  in  Christ."  It  is  not  necessary  to 
divide  this  text,  because  the  words  divide  themselves,  and  to  explain  them, 
we  need  only  to  follow  them.  Here  is  a  grateful  acknowledgment.  "  Bles 
sed  be  God."  The  title  under  which  the  Apostle  blesses  God,  "  The  Father 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  The  reason  for  which  he  blesses  him,  because 
"  he  hath  blessed  us."  The  plenitude  of  this  blessing,  "  with  all  blessings." 
The  nature  or  kind  signified  by  the  term  spiritual.  The  place  where  he 
hath  blessed  us,  "  in  heavenly  places."  Li  whom  he  hath  blessed  us,  "  in 
Christ." 

Most  texts,  however,  ought  to  be  formally  divided;  for  which  purpose 
you  must  principally  have  regard  to  the  order  of  nature,  and  put  that 
division  which  naturally  precedes,  in  the  first  place,  and  the  rest  must  fol 
low,  each  in  its  proper  order. 

There  are  two  natural  orders  ;  one  natural  in  regard  to  subjects  them 
selves ;  the  other  natural  in  regard  to  us. 

And  though,  in  general,  you  may  follow  which  of  the  two  others  you 
please,  yet  there  are  some  texts  that  determine  the  division ;  as  Phil.  ii.  13. 
"  It  is  God  who  worketh  effectually  in  you,  both  to  will  and  to  do  of  his 
own  good  pleasure."  There  are,  it  is  plam,  three  things  to  be  discussed; 
the  action  of  God's  grace  upon  men,  "  God  worketh  effectually  in  you ; " 
the  effect  of  this  grace,  "  to  will  and  to  do ;  "  and  the  spring  or  source  of 
the  action,  according  to  "his  good  pleasure."  I  think  the  division  would 
not  be  proper  if  we  were  to  treat,  1.  Of  God's  good  pleasure ;  2.  Of  his 
grace  ;  and  3.  Of  the  will  and  works  of  men. 

Above  all  things,  in  divisions,  take  care  of  putting  any  thing  in  the  first 
part  which  supposes  the  understanding  of  the  second ;  ur  which  obliges  you 
to  treat  of  the  second  to  make  the  first  understood ;  for,  by  these  means, 
you  will  throw  yourself  into  great  confusion,  and  be  obliged'^ to  Make  many 
tedious  repetitions.  You  must  endeavour  to  disengage  the  one  from  the 
other  as  well  as  you  can ;  and  when  your  parts  are  too  closely  connected 
with  each  other,  place  the  most  detached  first,  and  endeavour  to  make  that 
serve  for  a  foundation  to  the  explication  of  the  second,  and  the  second  to 
the  third ;  so  that,  at  the  end  of  your  explication,  the  hearer  may  at  a 
glance  perceive,  as  it  were,  a  perfect  body,  a  well  finished  building;  for  one 
of  the  greatest  excellences  of  a  sermon  is,  the  harmony  of  its  component 
parts  ;  that  the  first  leads  to  the  second,  the  second  serves  to  introduce  the 
third ;  that  they  which  go  before,  excite  a  desire  for  those  which  are  to 
follow. 

When,  in  a  text,  there  are  several  terms  which  need  a  particular  explan 
ation,  and  which  cannot  be  explained  without  confusion,  or  without  divid 
ing  the  text  into  too  many  parts,  then  I  would  not  divide  the  text  at  all ; 
but  I  would  divide  the  discourse  into  two  or  three  parts  ;  and  I  would  pro 
pose,  first,  to  explain  the  terms,  and  then  the  subject  itself. 

There  are  many  texts,  in  discussing  which,  it  is  not  necessary  to  treat  ot 
either  subject  or  attribute ;  but  all  the  discussion  depends  on  the  terms, 
fyncategorematica  (words  which,  of  themselves,  signify  nothing,  but,  ia 
conjunction  with  others,  are  very  significative).  For  example,  John  iii.  16, 
"  God  so  loved  the  world."  The  categorical  proposition  is,  God  loved  the 
world ;  yet,  it  is  neither  necessary  to  insist  much  upon  the  term  God,  nor 
to  speak  in  a  corhmon-place  way  of  the  love  of  God ,  but,  divide  the  text 
into  two  parts  ;  first,  the  gift  which  God  in  his  love  hath  made  of  his  son  ; 
secondly,  the  end  for  which  he  gave  him,  "  that  whosoever  believeth  in  him 
should  not  perish,  but  have  everlasting  life." 

There  are  texts  of  reasoning,  which  are  composed  of  an  objection  and  an 
answer  and  the  division  of  such  is  plain ;  fo:  they  naturally  divide  into  the 


894  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

objection  and  solution.  As,  Romans  vi.  1,  2,  "  What  shall  we  say  then,"  &c, 
There  are  some  texts  of  reasoning  which  are  extremely  difficult  to  divide 
because  they  cannot  be  reduced  into  many  propositions  without  confusion. 
As,  John  iv.  10,  "  If  thou  knewest  the  gift  of  God,"  &c.  I  think  it  might 
not  be  improper  to  divide  it  into  two  parts,  the  first  including  the  genera, 
propositions  coLtained  in  the  words ;  and  the  second,  the  particular  appli- 
cation of  these  to  the  Samaritan  woman. 

There  are  some  texts  which  imply  many  important  truths  without  ex 
pressing  them ;  and  yet  it  will  be  necessary  to  mention  and  enlarge  upon 
them,  either  because  they  are  useful  on  some  important  occasion,  or  be- 
cause they  are  important  of  themselves.  Then  the  text  may  be  divided 
into  two  parts,  one  implied,  and  the  other  expressed. 

In  texts  of  history,  divisions  are  easy ;  sometimes  an  action  is  related  in 
all  its  circumstances,  and  then  you  may  consider  the  action  in  itself  first, 
and  afterward  the  circumstances  of  the  action. 

To  render  a  division  agreeable,  and  easy  to  be  remembered  by  the  hearer, 
endeavour  to  reduce  it  as  often  as  possible  to  simple  terms. 

As  to  subdivisions,  it  is  always  necessary  to  make  them,  for  they  very 
much  assist  the  composition,  and  diffuse  perspicuity  into  a  discourse  ;  but 
it  is  not  always  necessarv  to  mention  them ;  on  the  contrary,  they  must  be 
very  seldom  mentioned,  because  it  will  load  the  hearer's  mind  with  a  mul 
titiide  of  particulars. 

Disciission.  There  are  four  methods  of  discussion.  Clear  subjects  must 
be  discussed  by  observation,  or  continued  application ;  difficidt  and  import- 
ant ones  by  explication  or  proposition. 

,  I.  By  Explication.  —  The  difficulty  is  in  regard  to  the  Terms,  to  the  sub 
ject,  or  to  both. 

1.  Explication  of  Terms.  —  The  difficulties  of  these  arise  from  three 
causes ;  either  the  terms  do  not  seem  to  make  any  sense,  or  thev  are  equi 
vocal,  fonning  different  senses ;  or,  the  sense  they  seem  to  make  at  ni-st 
appears  perplexed,  improper,  or  contradictory :  or,  the  meaning,  though 
clear,  may  be  controverted,  and  is  exposed  to  cavil. 

Propose  the  ratio  diibitandi,  which  makes  the  difficulty  ;  then  determine 
it*as  brieflv  as  you  can. 

2.  Of  tilings.  —  Difficult  things.  If  the  difficulty  arise  from  errors,  or 
false  senses,  refute  and  remove  them  ;  then  establish  the  truth.  If  from  the 
intricacy  of  the  subject  itself,  do  not  propose  difficulties,  and  raise  objections, 
but  enter  immediately  into  the  explication  of  the  matter,  and  take  care  to 
arrange  your  ideas  well. 

3.  Important  things,  tliough  clear,  must  bo  discussed  by  explication,  be 
cause  they  are  important. 

There  arc  two  sorts  of  explications  ;  the  one,  simple  and  plain,  needs  onlv 
to  bo  proposed,  and  agreeably  elucidated ;  the  other  must  bo  confirmed,  if 
it  speak  of  fact,  by  proofs  of  fact ;  if  of  right,  bv  proofs  of  right ;  if  of  both, 
proofs  of  both.  A  gi-eat  and  important  subject,  consisting  of  many  branches, 
may  bo  reduced  to  a  certain  number  of  propositions  or  questions,  and  dis 
cussed  one  after  the  other. 

N.  H.  Sometimes  what  you  will  have  to  explain  in  a  text  will  consist  of 
one  or  more  simple  terms ;  of  ways  of  speaking  peculiar  to  Scripture ;  of 
particles  called  syncategoicmaticn ;  and  sometimes  of  diflerent  propositions. 

1.  Sunnlo  tcniis  are  the  divine  attributes,  goodness,  &c.,  man's  virtues  or 
vices,  fuith,  hope,  &c.  Simple  terms  are  either  proper  or  figurative ;  if 
figurative,  give  the  meaning  of  the  figure,  and,  without  stopping  long,  pass 
on  to  the  tiling  itself.  Some  simple  terms  must  onlv  be  explained  just  as 
they  relate  to  the  intention  of  the  sacred  author;  in  a  word,  explain  simple 
terms  as  much  as  possible,  in  relation  to  tiie  design  of  the  sacred  author. 
Sometimes  the  simple  terms  in  a  text  must  be  discussed  professedly,  in 
order  to  give  a  clear  and  full  view  of  the  subject.  Sometimes,  when  there 
are  many,  it  might  be  injiidicijus  to  treat  of*  them  separately,  but  beauti 
fully  to  do  it  by  comparison. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITIO^^  395 

2.  Earpressions  peculiar  to  Scripture  deserve  a  particular  explanation, 
because  they  are  rich  iu  meaning ;  such  as,  "  to  be  in  Christ,"  "  come  after 
Christ,"  &c. 

Particles  called  syncategorematica  (such  as  none,  some,  all,  now,  wheii, 
&c.),  which  augment  or  limit  the  meaning  of  the  proposition,  should  be 
carefully  examined  ;  for  often  the  whole  explication  depends  upon  them, 

3.  When  the  matter  to  be  explained  iu  a  text  consists  of  a  proposition, 
give  the  sense  clearly ;  if  necessaiy,  show  its  importance  ;  if  it  requirs  con 
firmation,  confirm  it. 

In  all  cases,  illustrate  by  reasons,  examples,  comparisons  of  the  subject ; 
their  relations,  conformities,  or  differences.  You  may  do  it  by  consequen- 
ces ;  by  the  person,  his  state,  &c.,  who  proposes  the  subject ;  or  the  persons 
to  whom  it  is  proposed ;  by  circumstance,  time,  place,  &c.  You  may  il- 
lustrate a  proposition  by  its  evidence  or  inevidence.  It  is  discoverable  by 
the  light  of  nature,  or  only  by  revelation.  Let  good  sense  choose  the  best 
topics. 

Sometimes  a  proposition  includes  many  truths  which  must  be  distin 
guished ;  sometimes  a  proposition  must  be  discussed  in  different  views ; 
sometimes  it  has  different  degrees,  which  must  be  remarked  ;  sometimes  it 
■s  general,  and  of  Httle  importance ;  then  examine  whether  some  of  its 
parts  be  not  more  considerable  ;  if  so,  they  must  be  discussed  by  a  particu 
lar  application. 

II.  By  observation  ;  which  is  best  for  clear  and  historical  passages.  Some 
texts  require  both  explication  and  observation.  Sometimes  an  observation 
may  be  made  by  way  of  explication.  Observations,  for  the  most  part, 
ought  to  be  tl  oological ;  historical,  philosophical,  or  critical,  very  seldom. 
They  must  not  be  proposed  in  a  scholastic  style,  nor  common-place  form, 
but  in  a  free,  easy,  familiar  manner. 

III.  By  continual  application.  —  This  may  be  done  without  explaining, 
or  making  observations.  In  this  manner  we  must  principally  manage  texts 
exhorting  to  holiness  and  repentance.  In  using  this  method  something 
-searching  and  powerful  must  be  said,  or  better  it  should  be  let  alone. 

IV.  By  proposition.  —  The  texts  must  be  reduced  to  two  propositions  ac 
least,  and  three  or  four  at  most,  having  a  mutual  dependence  and  connex 
ion. 

This  method  opens  the  most  extensive  field  for  discussion.  In  the  for 
mer  methods  you  are  restrained  to  your  text ;  but  here  your  subject  is  the 
matter  contained  in  your  pi-oposition. 

The  way  of  explication  *  is  most  proper  to  give  the  meaning  of  Scrip- 
ture ;  this  of  systematical  divinity ;  and  it  has  this  advantage,  it  will 
equally  serve  either  theory  or  practice. 

N.  B.  Though  these  four  ways  are  different  from  each  other,  for  many 
texts  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  two  or  three,  and  for  some,  all  the  four; 
the  discourse  has  its  name  from  the  prevailing  method  of  handling  it. 

The  conclusion.  This  ought  to  be  lively  and  animating,  full  of  great 
and  beautiful  figures.  Aiming  to  move  Christian  affections.  As  the  love 
of  God,  hope,  zeal,  repentance,  self-condemnation,  a  desire  of  self-correc 
tion,  consolation,  admiration  of  eternal  benefits,  hope  of  felicity,  courage, 
and  constancy  in  afflictions,  steadiness  in  temptations,  gratitude  to  God, 
recourse  to  him  by  prayer,  and  other  such  dispositions. 

There  are  three  sorts  of  dispositions ;  the  violent,  tender,  and  elevated. 
To  raise  these,  the  conclusion  should  be  violent,  tender,  or  elevated.  It 
may  be  sometimes  mixed,  it  must  always  be  diversified. 

Is.  B.  Let  the  peroration,  or  conclusion,  be  short;  let  it  be  bold  and 
lively.  Let  some  one  or  more  striking  ideas,  not  mentioned  in  the  discus 
sion,  be  reserved  for  this  part,  and  applied  with  vigor. 

*  See  Ko.  I.  on  the  previous  page. 


396  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Example. 

OP  THE   SKELETON    OF  A   SERMON. 
The  existence  of  God. 

"  The  fool  hath  said  in  his  heart,  there  is  no  God."    Psalms  xiv.  1. 

"The  fool  hath  said,"  —  it  is  evident  that  none  but  a  fool  would  have 
said  it. 

Tfie  fool,  a  term  in  Scripture,  signifying  a  wicked  man ;  one  who  hath 
lost  his  wisdomj  and  riglit  apprehension  of  God  ;  one  dead  in  sin,  yet  one 
not  so  much  void  of  rational  faculties,  as  of  grace  in  those  faculties ;  not 
one  that  wants  reason,  but  one  who  abuses  his  reason. 

"  Said  in  his  heart ; "  i.  e.  he  thinks,  or  he  doubts,  or  he  wishes.  Thoughta 
are  words  in  heaven.  He  dares  not  openly  publish  it,  though  he  dares  se 
cretly  to  think  it ;  he  doubts,  he  wishes,  and  sometimes  hopes. 

"There  is  no  God,"  —  no  judge,  no  one  to  govern,  reward,  or  punish. 
Those  who  deny  the  providence  of  God.  do,  in  effect,  deny  his  existence; 
they  strip  him  of  that  wisdom,  goodiiess,  mercy,  and  justice,  which  are  the 
glory  of  the  Deity. 

Men  who  desire  liberty  to  commit  works  of  darkness,  would  not  only 
have  the  lights  in  the  house  dimmed,  but  extinguished.  What  men  say 
against  Providence,  because  they  would  have  no  check,  they  would  say 
in  their  hearts  against  the  very  existence  of  God,  because  they  would  have 
nojudge. 

The  existence  of  God  is  the  foundation  of  all  religion.  The  whole  build 
ing  totters,  if  the  foundation  be  out,  of  course.  We  must  believe  that  he 
is,  and  that  he  is  what  he  declared  himself,  before  we  can  seek  him,  adore 
him,  and  love  him. 

It  is,  therefore,  necessary  we  should  know  why  we  believe,  that  our  bo 
lief  be  founded  on  undeniable  evidence,  and  that  we  may  give  a  bettor 
reason  for  his  existence,  than  that  we  have  heard  our  parents  and  teachers 
tell  us  so.  It  is  as  much  as  to  say,  "  There  is  no  God,"  when  we  have  no 
better  argiimcnts  than  those. 

That  we  may  be  fully  persuaded  of,  and  established  in  this  truth,  on 
deavour, 

1.  To  bring  forward  a  few  observations  in  the  defence  thereof. 

1.  All  nature  shows  the  existence  of  its  Maker.  We  cannot  open  our 
eyes  but  we  discover  this  truth  shine  through  all  creatures.  The  whole 
universe  bears  the  character  and  stamp  of  a  First  Cause,  infinitely  wise, 
infinitely  powerful.  Let  us  cast  our  eves  on  the  earth  which  bears  us, 
and  ask,  "  Who  laid  the  foundation  ?  "  Job  xxxviii.  4.  Let  us  look  on  that 
vast  arch  of  skies  that  covers  us,  and  inquire,  "  Who  hath  thus  stretched  it 
forth  ?  "  Isaiah  xl.  21,  S'i.  "  Who  is  it  also  that  hath  fixed  so  many  lumin- 
ous bodies,  with  so  much  order  and  regularity  ?  "  Job  xxvi.  13.  The  va- 
rious works  of  creation  proclaim  to  us  "  His  eternal  power  and  godhead." 
Romans  i.  20  ;  Acts  xiv.  16,  17  ;  xvii.  20.  Every  plant,  every  atom,  as  well 
as  every  star,  bear  witness  of  a  Deity.  Who  ever  saw  statues,  or  pictures, 
but  concluded  there  had  been  a  statuary  and  limner  ?  Who  can  behold 
garments,  ships,  or  houses,  and  not  understand  there  was  a  weaver,  a  car 
penter,  an  architect?  All  things  that  are  demonstrate  something  from 
whence  they  are.  A  man  may  as  well  doubt  whether  there  be  a  sun 
when  ho  sees  his  beams  giUling  the  earth,  as  doubt  whether  there  bo  a  God. 
when  ho  sees  his  works.     Psalms  x'.x.  1-6. 

The  Atheist  is,  tliorefore,  a  fool,  because  he  denies  that  which  ever> 


AIDS    TO    E:NaLISH    COMPOSITION.  3tf7 

creature  iu  his  constitution  asserts ;  can  he  behold  the  spider's  net,  or  the 
silk-worm's  web,  the  bee's  closets,  or  the  ant's  granaries,  without  acknow 
'edging  a  higher  being  than  a  creature,  who  hath  planted  that  genius  in 
them  ?  Job  xxxix. ;  Fsalms  civ.  24.  "  The  stars  fought  against  Sisera." 
fudges  V.  20.  All  the  stars  in  heaven,  and  the  dust  on  earth,  oppose  the 
Atheist.    Romans  i.  19,  20. 

2.  The  dread  of  conscience  is  an  argument  to  convince  us  of  this  truth 
*  Every  one  that  finds  me  shall  slay  me,"  Genesis  iv.  14,  was  the  language 
of  Cain ;  and  the  like  apprehensions  are  not  seldom  in  those  who  feel  the 
fury  of  an  enraged  conscience.  The  psalmist  tells  us  concerning  those  who 
say  in  their  heart,  "  There  is  no  God,"  that  "  they  are  in  fear,  where  no  feai 
is,"  Psalms  liii.  5.  Their  guilty  minds  invent  terrors,  and  thereby  confess 
a  Deity,  whilst  they  deny  it,  —  that  there  is  a  sovereign  Being  who  will 

Eunish.  Pashur,  who  wickedly  insulted  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  had  this  for 
is  reward,  "  that  his  name  should  be  Magor-missabib,"  i.  e.  "  fear  round 
about,"  Jeremiah  xx.  3,  4.  When  Belshazzar  saw  the  hand  writing,  "  his 
countenance  was  changed,"  Daniel  v.  6.  The  apostle  who  tells  us,  that 
there  is  a  "  law  written  in  the  hearts  of  men,"  adds,  their  "  consciences 
also  bear  witness,"  Romans  ii.  15.  The  natural  sting  and  horror  of  con 
science  are  a  demonstration  that  there  is  a  God  to  judge  and  punish. 

The  Atheist  is  a  fool,  because  he  usstu  violence  to  his  conscience.  The 
operations  of  conscience  are  Tiniversal.  The  iron  bars  upon  Pharaoh's 
conscience  at  last  gave  way.    Exodus  ix.  27. 

3.  Universal  consent  is  another  argument.  The  notion  of  a  God  is  found 
among  all  nations  ;  it  is  the  language  of  every  country  and  region ;  the 
most  abominable  idolatry  argues  a  Deity.  All  nations,  though  ever  so 
barbarous  and  profligate,  have  confessed  some  God.  This  universal  verdict 
of  mankind  is  no  other  than  the  voice  of  God,  the  testimony  of  reason,  and 
the  language  of  nature  ;  there  is  no  speech,  nor  tongue  where  this  voict  is 
not  heard. 

Is  it  not,  therefore,  folly  for  any  man  to  deny  that  which  nature  has  en 
graven  on  the  minds  of  all  ? 

4.  Extraordinary  judgments.  When  a  just  revenge  follows  abominable 
crimes,  especially  when  the  judgment  is  suited  to  the  sin  ;  when  the  sin  is 
made  legible  by  the  inflicted  judgments.  "  The  Lord  is  known  by  the 
ludgments  which  he  executes,"  Psalms  ix.  16.  Herod  Agrippa  received 
the  flattering  applause  of  the  people,  and  thought  himself  a  God  ;  but  was, 
by  the  judgment  inflicted  upon  him,  forced  to  confess  another.  Acts  xii. 
21  -  23 :  Judges  i.  6,  7  ;  Acts  v.  1  -  10. 

5.  AccomplisJwients  of  prophecies.  To  foretell  things  that  are  future,  as 
if  they  did  already  exist,  or  had  existed  long  ago,  must  be  the  result  of  a 
mind  infinitely  intelligent.  "  Show  the  things  that  are  to  come  hereafter." 
Isaiah  xli.  23.  "  I  am  God,  declaring  the  end  from  the  beginning."  Isaiah 
xlvi.  10.  Cyrus  was  prophesied  of,  Isaiah  xliv.  28,  and  xlv.  1,  long  before 
he  was  born  ;  Alexander's  sight  of  Daniel's  prophecy  concerning  his  victo 
ries  moved  him  to  spare  Jerusalem.  The  four  monarchies  are  plainly  de- 
ciphered in  Daniel,  before  the  fourth  rose  up.  That  power,  which  foretells 
things  beyond  the  wit  of  man,  and  orders  all  causes  to  bring  about  those 
predictions,  must  be  an  infinite  power :  the  same  as  made,  sustains,  and 
governs  all  things  according  to  his  pleasure,  and  to  bring  about  his  own 
ends  ;  and  this  being  is  God.  "  I  am  the  Lord,  and  there  is  none  else,' 
Isaiah  xlv.  6,  7. 

What  folly,  then,  for  any  to  shut  their  eyes,  and  stop  their  ears ;  to  at 
tribute  those  things  to  blind  chance,  which  nothing  less  than  an  infinitely 
wise  and  infinitely  powerful  Being  could  eifect ! 

II.  A  few  observations. 

1.  If  God  can  be  seen  in  creation,  study  the  creatures ;  the  creatures  aro 
the  heralds  of  God's  glory.  "  The  glory  of  the  Lord  shall  endnre  '"  Psalms 
civ.  31. 

34 


398  AIDS  TO  p:nglish  composition. 

The  world  is  a  sacred  temple;  man  is  introduced  to  contemplate  it.  As 
grace  does  not  destroy  nature,  so  the  book  of  redemption  does  not  blot  out 
the  book  of  creation.     Read  nature ;  nature  is  a  friend  to  truth. 

2.  If  it  be  a  folly  to  deny  or  doubt  the  being  of  God,  is  it  not  a  folly  also 
not  to  worship  God,  when  we  acknowledge  his  existence  ?  "  To  fear  God, 
and  keep  his  commandments,  is  the  whole  duty  of  man." 

We  are  not  reasonable  if  we  are  not  reUgious.  "  Your  reasonable  ler 
vice,"  Romans  xii.  1. 

3.  If  it  be  a  folly  to  deny  the  existence  of  God,  will  it  not  be  our  wisdom 
uince  we  acknowledge  his  being,  often  to  think  of  him  ?  It  is  the  black 
murk  of  a  fool,  "  God  is  not  in  all  his  thoughts,"  Psalms  x.  4. 

4.  If  we  believe  the  being  of  God,  let  us  abhor  practical  Atheism.  Ac 
tions  speak  louder  than  words. 

"  They  professed  that  they  knew  God,"  Titus  i  16.  Men's  practices  are 
the  best  indexes  to  their  principles.  "  Let  your  light  shine  before  men." 
Matthew  v.  16. 

The  following  Skdetoiis  are  on  a  different  plan.* 
1. 

Psalm  xlvi.  1,  "  God  is  our  refuge  and  strength,  a  very  present  help  in 
trouble." 

Sorrow  is  our  common  lot,  many  seem  to  know  little  of  it,  the  widow, 
fatherless,  &c. ;  text  needs  no  explanation. 

I.  The  wonderful  condescension  of  God  in  assuming  this  character  to 
wards  man,  —  not,  however,  according  to  the  usual  reasoning,  —  man's 
greatness,  —  his  progi-essive  faculties  will  equal  angels,  &c.  Surpass  all 
intelligence  except  God,  —  but  there  will  still  be  an  infinite  distance  be- 
tween God  and  man,  —  Man's  moral  estate  ;  these  the  reasons. 

II.  The  emphasis  of  the  text, — present^  very  preseiU,  —  our  mechanical 
habits,  —  the  divine  presence  not  realized,  —  a  man  first  awakened  or  con- 
victed feels  it,  —  but  soon  is  lost,  —  suppose  a  pure  and  holy  being  were 
present  at  your  sins,  —  as  an  angel,  —  but  God  is  present !  See  the  Christ- 
ian in  a  stonn  at  sea,  —  hearing  the  crash,  indulging  sin.  — 

Objection  to  the  infinite  God's  caring  for  man, — all  worlds  particles  of 
sand.  —  How  should  this  thought  aflect  us,  —  Mother!  Jesus  stood  at  the 
cofiin  of  thy  infant  child,  at  the  grave  of  thy  parents !  He  is  with  thee, 
•iliiill  we  weep  and  repine  even  in  a  garret,  when  God  is  witii  us  ? 

III.  Cautiousness  of  the  text.  —  He  is  a  help,  —  not  sole  deliverer, — 
there  is  something  for  us  to  do,  —  prayer  is  one  reason  of  it.  —  Nothing 
»therwi80.  —  Fanner.  —  Mechanic,  —  health  by  medicine. 

IV.  Applicability  of  the  text  to  all  the  poor  unfortunate,  —  stranger,  — 
•vidow,  —  orphan,  —  mounior,  —  Christian  in  temptation,  —  quality  of  all, 
n,  guilty  conscience. 

2. 

Rev.  vii.  17,  ♦*  God  shall  wipe  away  all  tears  from  their  eyes."   Context, 
-  Nature  and  probable  <lesign  of  these  prophecies.  — 

1.  Aflflictions  in  the  present  state  of  the  Christian,  an  important  and  ad 
vantngeous  part  of  his  moral  discipline.  1.  The  fact  that  thev  are  pei 
mitted,  shows  that  they  are  advantageous.  —  How  many  instances,  —  texts. 

2.  They  aflbrd  exorcise  for  our  Christian  virtues,  moral,  —  fortitude 
patience,  i-esignution. 

3.  They  show  us  the  futility  of  worldly  comforts,  —  our  friends  die,- 
health  and  beauty  fade,  —  wealth  and  pleasure  must  be  left  behind  us. 


•  Thejr  are.  In  fkct.  the  notea  of  a  dtaUngulshed  extemporaneous  pre*clier. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    CbOMPOSITIOK.  399 

n  Thife  discipline  is  preparatory  to  another  which  shall  be  exempt  from 
affliction. 

1.  The  Scriptures  assert  the  existence  of  such  a  place  called  heaven, 
Kingdom  of  God,  Paradise,  New  Jerusalem,  &c.  It  is  implied  in  the  doc- 
trine of  immortality. 

2.  It  is  consistent  with  all  rational  supposition. — Analogy  between  this 
world  and  other  planets.  —  3.  All  causes  of  sorrow  shall  ceaiie  there.  —  4.  It 
is  everlasting  in  its  duration.  — 

APPLICATION, 

Do  I  address  the  mourner  who  has  lost  friends,  estate,  health  ?  —  the 
aged  ?  —  youth  declining  in  early  life  ?  &c. 

3. 

Gal.  iii.  18,  "  But  it  is  good  to  be  zealously  affected  always  in  a  good 
thing." 

Christianity  is  designed  to  call  into  activity  the  noblest  sentiments  of  the 
heart, — firm  resolve,  —  intrepid  daring  and  undaunted  perseverance, — 
zeal.  —  The  Christian's  life  is  a  holy  warfare,  —  a  holy  chivalry.  —  The 
Apostle  lays  down  the  proposition,  that  if  anything  is  good,  it  is  ^ood  to  be 
zealously  affected  in  that  good  cause,  —  Christianity  is  good  considered. 

1.  In  respect  to  its  orign^  —  divine,  —  bears  its  marks,  -  -  it  is  interesting 
to  contemplate  nature,  —  but  much  more  revelation,  —  the  noblest  gift  of 
God  to  man.  — 

II.  In  its  nature,  —  its  theory  of  doctrines,  —  its  code  of  moral  rules  was 
never  equalled  by  1.  Philosophy,  —  2.  Education,  —  all  improvement  has 
failed  without  it.  —  Its  nature  renders  it  efficient  in  its  effects,  —  its  preset 
vation,  —  triumph  over  infidelity.  -  - 

III.  Its  effects,  —  individual  effects.  —  1.  Benevolence,  —  2.  Death.  —  3. 
Peace  of  conscience. 

2.  General  effects, —  1.  It  prevents  crune. — 2.  Elevates  society. —3. 
Sustains  good  government.  —  4.  War. 

We  should  be  zealous,  1.  Because  God  commands  us  to  be  so.  2.  The 
wants  of  the  world  call  for  it.  3.  Our  happiness  hereafter  will  be  proper 
tioned  to  our  zeal,  —  a  philosophical  as  well  as  Scriptural  fact.  —  We  have 
aigh  examples  to  copy,  —  the  apostles,  martyrs,  and  reformers,  —  Wesley, 
W'hitfield,  &c. 


^      XCVIII. 

SUBJECTS  FOE  COMPOSITIONS  OF  ALL  SORTS 

1.  Mythology.  10.  Kuins  of  Rome. 

2  Rural  happiness.  "        Greece. 

3  Our  native  land.  11.  Twilight. 

4.  Description  of  a  storm.  12.  A  winter  evening. 

5.  Scene  at  a  summer's  noon.  13.  Moonlight  at  sea. 
(5.  A  winter  landscape.  14.  Spring. 

7.  A  market  day.  15.  Summer. 

8.  An  evening  walk.  16.  Autumn. 

9.  The  entrance  of  Chrrst  into  Je-    17.  Winter. 

rusalem.  18.  The  equator. 


ioo 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 

33. 
34. 

35. 

36. 
37. 
38. 

39. 
40. 

41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 
46. 
47. 
48. 

49. 
50. 
51. 
62. 
53. 

64. 

55. 

56. 
57. 
58. 
59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 
63. 
64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 
68. 


The  tropics. 

Mid-summer. 

Rural  scenery. 

Review  of  the  seasons. 

Solitude. 

The  love  of  order. 

Evils  of  obstinacy. 

Firmness. 

Delicacy  of  feeling. 

Delicacy  of  taste. 

Novels. 

Tales  of  fiction. 

Contemplation. 

Correspondence    between    true 
politeness  and  religion. 

Sympathy. 

The  advantages  of  a  good  educa- 
tion. 

The  effects  of  learning  on  the 
countenance. 

Power  of  habit. 

The  art  of  pleasing. 

Comparison  of  history  and  biog 
raphy. 

The  passions. 

The  difference  between  beauty 
and  fashion. 

Enterprise. 

Exertion. 

Importance  of  a  good  chaxacter. 

Criticism. 

Religious  education. 

Monumental  inscriptions. 

On  forming  connexions. 

Qualifications  for  the  enjoyment 
of  friendship. 

Duties  of  hospitality. 

Moral  principles. 

Moral  duties. 

Civility. 

Family  quarrels,    their  causes, 
and  mode  of  preventing  them. 

Early  attachments. 

Taste    for    the    cultivation    of 
flowers. 

Government  of  temper. 

Comedy. 

'Tmgedy. 

Uses  of'^adversity. 

Poetical  taste. 

Manners. 

Modesty  of  merit. 

Method. 

Parental  indulgence. 

Parental  seventy. 

Profligacy. 

The  study  of  the  Latin  language. 

The  study  of  the  French  lan- 
guage. 


69.  Ingenuity. 

70.  Eloquence. 

71.  Fancy. 

72.  Imagination. 

73.  Classical  leamu  g. 

74.  Ta.ste  for  simple  pleasures. 

75.  Scepticism. 

76.  Amusements. 

77.  EflScacy  of  moral  instruction. 

78.  A  cultivated  mind  necessary  for 

the  enjoyment  of  retirement. 

79.  Want    of    personal  beauty  as 

affecting  virtue  and    happi 
ness. 

80.  Happiness  of  domestic  life. 

81.  Evils  of  public  life. 

82.  Modesty  a  sign  of  merit. 

83.  Equanimity  the    best    support 

under  affliction. 

84.  Ill  effects  of  ridicule. 

85.  Necessity  of  temperance  to  the 

health  of  the  mind. 

86.  Moral  effects  of  painting  ahu 

sculpture. 

87.  The  choice  of  a  profession. 

88.  Selfishness. 

89.  Literary  genius. 

90.  Necessity  of  attention  to  things 

as  well  as  to  books. 

91.  Fear  of  growing  old. 

92.  The  bUttferfly  and  its  changes 

93.  Freedom. 

94.  The  rose. 

95.  The  lily. 

96.  Remorse. 

97.  The  voice. 

98.  Grace. 

99.  Gesture. 

100.  Woman. 

101.  Man. 

102.  Youth  and  manhood. 

103.  The  sacred  Scriptures 
10-t.  The  press. 

105.  The  pulpit. 

106.  The  human  frame. 

107.  TraveUing. 

108.  Language. 

109.  Liberty. 

110.  Infidelity. 

111.  Atheism. 

112.  Independence. 

113.  The  existence  of  God 

114.  Light. 

115.  Darkness. 

116.  Heat. 

117.  Cold. 

118.  The  rainbow. 

119.  The  wife. 

120.  The  husband. 


A.IDS    TO    ENGLISS    COMPOSITION. 


40j 


121.  Influence  of  Christianity. 

180. 

122.  Stability  of  character. 

181. 

123.  Instability  of  character 

182. 

124.  Peevishness. 

183. 

1 25.  Art  of  pleasing. 

184. 

126.  Local  associations. 

185. 

127.  Influence  of  female  character 

186. 

128.  Discretion. 

187. 

129.  New  England. 

188. 

130.  Paternal  influence. 

189. 

131.  Maternal  influence. 

132.  Intemperance. 

190. 

133.  Fashionable  Follies. 

191. 

134.  Emigration. 

192. 

135.  Intellectual  dissipation. 

193. 

136.  Intellectual  discipline. 

194. 

137.  The  warrior. 

195. 

138.  The  statesman. 

196. 

139.  The  legislator. 

197. 

140.  The  judge. 

198. 

141.  A  field  of  battle. 

199. 

142.  A  naval  engagement. 

200. 

143.  ImmortaUtv. 

144.  Decision  of  character 

201. 

202. 

145.  Romance. 

203. 

146.  Flattery. 

204. 

147.  Industry 

205. 

148.  Temperance. 

206. 

149.  Resentment. 

207. 

150.  Lying. 

208. 

251.  Piety. 

209. 

152.  Anger. 

210. 

153.  Poetry. 

154.  Envy. 

211. 

155.  Virtue. 

212. 

156.  Justice. 

213. 

157.  Adversity. 

214. 

158.  Pride. 

215. 

159.  Compassion. 

216. 

160.  Avarice 

217. 

161.  Slander. 

218. 

162.  Mercy. 

219. 

163.  Wealth. 

220. 

164.  Prudence. 

221. 

165.  Gratitude. 

222. 

166.  Afi'ectation. 

223. 

167.  Loquacity. 

224. 

168.  Wisdom. 

225. 

169.  Luxury. 

226. 

170.  Health. 

227. 

171.  Pleasure. 

228. 

172.  Gaming. 

229. 

173.  Religion. 

174.  Study. 

230. 

231. 

175.  Experience- 

232. 

176.  Peace  and  war. 

233. 

177.  Want  and  plenty. 

234. 

178.  Ignorance  and  learning. 

179.  Happiness  and  miserv. 

235. 

236. 

3±* 

Virtue  and  vice. 

Parsimony  and  prodigality - 

Hope  and  fear. 

Reward  and  punishment. 

Beauty  and  deformity. 

Aff'ection  and  hatred. 

An-ogance  and  humility. 

Order  and  Confusion. 

Carelessness  and  caution 

Contentment   and    dissatisfac- 
tion. 

Emulation  and  sloth. 

Cleanliness. 

Religious  intolerance. 

Charity. 

Contentment. 

Courage. 

Hope. 

Perseverance. 

Conscience. 

Death. 

Life. 

Sickness. 

Health. 

Good  humor. 

Omniscience  of  God. 

Omnipresence  of  God. 

Truth. 

Sincerity. 

Procrastination 

Trust  in  God. 

Pleasures    resulting     from, 
proper  use  of  our  faculties 

Modesty. 

Application. 

Discretion. 

Christianity. 

Suspicion. 

Fortitude. 

Forgiveness. 

The  seasons. 

Filial  affection. 

Harmony  of  nature. 

Adversity. 

Distribution  of  time. 

Sources  of  knowledge. 

Conjugal  afifection. 

Filial  piety. 

Generosity. 

Heroism. 

Despair. 

Government. 

Dramatic  entertainments. 

Fables  and  allegories. 

Figurative  language. 

Commerce. 

Chivalry. 

Philosophy. 

Natural  history. 


402  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITIOW. 

337.  Aitronomy. 

238.  The  invention  of  the  mariners'  compass. 

239.  The  invention  of  the  telescope. 

240.  The  application  of  steam. 

241.  The  invention  of  the  steam  engine. 

242.  The  mathematics. 

243.  Astrology. 

244   Modern  discoveries 

245.  Architecture. 

246.  The  law. 

247.  The  learned  professions 

248.  Curiosity. 

249.  Nature. 
2.')0.  Art. 

251.  The  influence  and  importance  of  the  female  character. 

252.  Is  the  expectation  of  reward  or  the  fear  of  punishment  the  greater  in 

centive  to  exertion  ? 

253.  The  value  of  time,  and  the  uses  to  which  it  should  be  applied. 

254.  The  character  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Nero,  —  of  Caligula,  —  of  Augas 

tus,  —  of  Julius  Caesar,  —  of  Numa  Pompilius. 

255.  The  duties  we  owe  to  our  parents,  and  the  consequences  of  a  neglec 

of  them. 
256.*  How  blessings  brighten  as  they  take  their  flight. 

257.  How  dear  are  all  tlie  ties  that  bind  our  race  in  gentleness  together. 

258.  The  advantages  of  early  rising ;  and  the  arguments  which  mar  be  ad 

duced  to  prove  it  a  dutj'. 
2.')9.  Misery  is  wed  to  guilt. 

260.  A  soul  without  reflection,  like  a  pile 
Without  inhabitant,  to  ruin  nins. 

261.  Still  where  rosy  pleasure  leads 
See  a  kindred  grief  pursue, 
Behind  the  steps  that  misery  treadi. 
Approaching  comforts  view. 

762.  '1  is  Providence  alone  secures, 

In  every  change,  both  mine  and  yours. 
263.  Know  then  this  trutl;,  enough  for  man  to  know, 

Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below. 
2t)4.  Prayer  ardent  opens  heaven. 

Whatever  is,  is  right. 
265.  Knowledge  and  plenty  vie  with  each  other. 
2()6.  When  beggars  die  there  are  no  comets  seen  ; 

The  heavens  themselves  blaze  forth  the  death  of  Drinces. 

267.  Friendship  is  constant  in  all  other  things 
Save  in  the  oflice  and  aftairs  of  love. 

268.  Man,  proud  man, 

Drest  in  a  little  brief  authority, 
M(xst  ignorant  of  what  he  's  most  assured. 
260.      No  might  nor  greatness  in  mortality 

Can  censure  'scape;  back-wounding  calumny 
The  whitest  virtue  strikes. 

270.  Thev  say,  best  men  ore  moulded  out  of  faults. 

271.  What  we  have  we  prize  not  to  the  worth 
Whiles  we  enjoy  it;  but  being  lacked  and  lost, 
Why  then  we  rack  the  value ;  then  we  find 
The  virtue  that  possession  would  not  show  us 
Whiles  it  was  ours. 

872.      All  delights  are  vain ;  but  that  most  vain 

Which,  with  pain  ourchased.  doth  'nherit  paiu. 
'-473    Light,  seeking  ligTA,  doth  light  of  light  beguilo. 


AIDS    TO     ENGIISH    COMPOSITION.  -iOS 


274    Too  much  to  know  is  to  know  nought  but  fame. 
273       Where  is  any  author  :n  the  world 

Teaches  such  beauty  as  a  woman's  eye  ? 

276.  The  hind  that  would  be  mated  by  the  lion 
Must  die  for  love. 

277.  Our  remedies  oft  in  ourselves  do  lie 
Which  we  ascribe  to  heaven. 

27S.  The  web  of  our  life  is  of  mingled  yarn, 

Good  and  ill  together :  our  virtues  would  be 
Proud,  if  our  faults  whipped  them  not ;  and  our 
Crimes  would  despair  if  they  were  not 
Cherished  by  our  virtues. 

279.  Let 's  take  the  instant  by  the  forward  top ; 
For  we  are  old,  and  on  our  quickest  d'jcrees 
The  inaudible  and  noiseless  foot  of  time 
Steals  ere  we  can  effect  them. 

280.  They  lose  the  world  that  do  buy  it  with  much  cftro. 

281.  I  can  easier  teach  twenty  what  were 

Gv  od  to  be  done,  than  be  one  of  the  twenty  to 
Follow  mine  own  teaching. 

282.  All  things  that  are, 

Are  with  more  spirit  chased  than  enjoyed. 

283.  Love  is  blind,  and  lovers  cannot  see 
The  petty  follies  that  themselves  commit. 

284.  The  world  is  still  deceived  with  ornament. 

285.  The  man  that  hath  no  music  in  himself, 

Nor  is  not  moved  with  concord  of  sweet  sounds, 
Is  fit  for  treason,  stratag-ems  and  spoils. 

286.  The  nightingale,  if  she  would  sing  by  day, 
When  every  goose  is  cackling,  would  be  thought 
No  better  a  musician  than  the  wren. 

How  many  things  by  season  seasoned  are 
To  their  I'ight  praise  and  true  perfection. 

287.  This  our  life  exempt  from  public  haunt, 

Finds  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  the  running  biXN-J?:, 
Sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  every  thing. 

288.  Oftentimes,  to  win  us  to  our  harm, 

The  instruments  of  darkness  tell  us  truths, 
Win  us  with  trifles,  to  betray  us 
In  deepest  consequence. 

289.  I  dare  do  all  that  may  become  a  man. 
Who  dares  do  more  is  none. 

290.  If  it  were  done,  when  't  is  done,  then  't  were  \rer; 
It  were  done  quickly. 

291.  Memoiy,  the  warder  of  the  brain. 
2';*2.  Noughts'  had,  all's  spent 

Where  our  desire  is  got  without  content. 
2y3.       Things  without  remedy 
Should  be  without  regard. 

294.  When  our  actions  do  not, 
Our  fears  do  make  us  traitors. 

295.  Angels  are  bright  still,  though  the  brightest  fell. 
2'}6.      The  grief  that  does  not  speak 

Whispers  the  o'erfraught  heart,  and  bids  it  brecV;. 

297.  Courage  mounteth  with  occasion. 

298.  When  fortune  means  to  men  most  good, 

She  looks  upon  them  with  a  threatening  eye. 
299       He  that  stands  upon  a  slippery  place 
Makes  nice  of  no  vile  hold  to  stty  him  up. 


404  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION, 


■JOO.      Often  times  excusing  of  a  fault 

Doth  make  the  fault  the  worse  by  the  excuse, 
As  patches,  set  upon  a  little  breach 
Discredit  more  in  hiding  of  the  fault 
Than  did  the  fault  before  it  was  so  patched. 

301.  How  oft  the  sight  of  means  to  do  ill  deeas 
Makes  deeds  ill  done  ! 

302.  That  which  in  mean  men  we  entitle  patienoc, 
Is  pale,  cold  cowardice  in  noble  braasts. 

303.  Woe  doth  the  heavier  sit 

Where  it  perceives  it  is  but  faintly  borne. 

304.  Gnarling  sorrow  hath  less  power  to  bite 
The  man  that  mocks  at  it  and  sets  it  light. 

305.  O  who  can  hold  a  fire  in  his  hand 
By  thinking  on  the  frosty  Caucasus  ? 
Or  cloy  the  hungry  edge  of  appetite, 
By  bare  imagination  of  a  feast? 

Or  wallow  naked  in  December's  snow, 
By  thinking  on  fantastic  summer's  heat  ? 
On,  no  !  the  apprehension  of  the  good, 
Gives  but  the  greater  feeling  to  the  worse  ■ 
Fell  sorrow's  tooth  doth  never  rankle  more 
Than  when  it  bites,  but  lanceth  not  the  8or«. 

306.  If  all  the  year  were  playing  holidays, 
To  sport  would  be  as  tedious  as  to  work. 

307.  The  better  part  of  valor  is  discretion. 

308.  See  what  a  ready  tongue  suspicion  hath  ! 

lie  that  but  fears  the  thing  he  would  not  isnow. 
Hath,  by  instinct,  knowledge  from  others  eyes. 
That  what  he  feared,  is  chanced. 

309.  Naught  so  vile,  that  on  the  earth  doth  live, 
But  to  the  earth  some  special  good  doth  give ; 
Nor  aught  so  good,  but  strained  from  that  fair 
Revolts  from  true  birth,  stumbling  on  abuse. 
Virtue  itself  turns  vice,  being  misapplied, 
And  vice  sometimes 's  by  action  dignified. 

310.  Striving  to  better,  oft  we  mar  what 's  well. 
311    0  reason  not  the  need ;  our  basest  beggars 

Are  in  the  poorest  thing  superfluous : 

Allow  not  nature  more  than  nature  noqds, 

Man's  life  is  cheap  as  beast's. 
"^12.      Give  thy  thoughts  no  tongue, 

Nor  any  unproportioncd  thought  his  act. 
'J13.  The  friends  thou  hast  and  their  adoption  tr.3«i, 

Grapple  them  to  thy  soul  with  hooks  of  8te«l. 
314.  Beware 

Of  entrance  to  a  quarrel :  but,  being  in. 

Bear  it,  that  the  opposer  may  beware  of  thoe 
S15.  Give  every  man  thy  ear,  but  few  thy  voice. 

316.  The  apparel  oft  proclaims  tlie  man. 

317.  Neither  a  borrower  nor  a  lender  be  ; 
For  loan  f)ft  loseth  both  itself  and  friend. 
And  borrowing  dulls  the  edge  of  husbandry 

318.  To  thine  own  self  be  true; 

And  it  must  follow,  as  the  night  the  day, 
Thou  canst  not  then  be  false  to  any  man 

319.  Trifles,  light  as  air, 

Are  to  the  jealous  confirmations  strotig 
As  proofs  of  holy  writ. 


AIDS    TO    EI^GLISH    COMPOSITION.  406 


3'JO.       He  that  is  robbed,  not  wanting  what  is  stolen, 
Let  hun  not  know  it  and  he  's  not  robbed  at  all. 


SUBJECTS    FOR    CONFERENCES. 

T.  On  the  mineral,  animal,  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  as  fm-uishing  subjects 
of  interesting  inquiry. 

2.  On  reflection,  reading,  and  observation,  as  affording  a  knowledge  of  hu 

man  nature. 

3.  On  the  present  character  of  the  inhabitants  of  New-England,  as  result 

ing  from  the  civil,  literary,  and  religious  institutions  of  our  fore 
fathers. 

4.  The  stability  of  the  General  Government  of  the  United  States  as  affect 

ed  by  a  national  literature,  common  dangers,  facility  of  mutual 
intercourse,  and  a  general  diffusion  of  knowledge. 
i).  The  obligations  of  a  country  to  her  warriors,  her  statesmen,  her  artists, 
and  her  authors. 

6.  Public  amusements,  splendid  religious  ceremonies,  warlike  preparations, 

and  a  display  of  a  rigid  police,  as  means  of  despotic  power. 

7.  The  comparative  virtue  of  the  enlightened  and  ignorant  classes. 

8.  On  the  value  to  a  nation  of  the  abstract  sciences,  the  physical  sciences, 

and  literature. 

9.  The  associations  excited  by  visiting  Italy,  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Palestine, 

considered  with  reference  to  their  ancient  history. 

10.  On  the  fine  arts,  as  affecting  the  morals,  refinement,  patriotism,  and 

religion  of  a  country. 

11.  On  architecture,  painting,  poetry,  and  music,  as  tending  to  produce 

and  perpetuate  religious  impressions. 

12.  On  the  comparative  operation  in  obstructing  the  progress  of  trutn,  of 

the  spirit  of  controversy,  the  revei-ence  of  antiquity,  the  passion  of 
novelty,  and  the  acquiescence  in  authority. 

13.  On  the  character  of  Hume,  Robertson,  Gibbon,  and  Mitford,  as  histo 

rians. 

14.  On  the  characteristics  of  man  and  government,  as  found  in  the  savage, 

pastoral,  agricultural,  and  commercial  state. 

15.  On  patronage,  emulation,  and  personal  necessity,  as  promotive  of  lit- 

erary exertion. 

16.  On  the  effect  of  agriculture  and  manufactures  on  the  morals  of  the 

community. 

17.  On  the  influence  of  Greek,  Latin,  English,  and  French  literature  on 

taste. 

18.  On  novels  formed  on  fashionable,  humble,  and  sea  life. 

19.  Natural,  civil,  ecclesiastical,  and  literary  history,  considered  in  relation 

to  the  tendency  of  each  to  improve  and  elevate  the  intellectual 
faculties. 

20.  Miss  Edgeworth,  Hannah  More,  and  Mrs.  Hemans. 

21.  The  letters  of  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montague,  Horace  Walpole,  and 

Cowper. 

22.  Personal  merit  and  powerful  friends,  as  promoting  advancement  in  life. 

23.  The  influence  of  Young's  and  Cowper's  Poems. 

24.  The  commercial  spirit  of  modei-n  times,  considered  in  its  influence  on 

the  political,  moral,  and  literary  character  of  a  nation. 

25.  Sterne,  Rabelais,  and  Cervantes. 

26.  The  difference  of  feeling  in  the  young  and  the  old,  with  regard  to  in 

novation. 
•7.  War,  commerce,  and  missionary  enterprises,  as  means  of  civilizing 
barbarous  countries. 


406  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

28.  The  political  refDrmer,  the  schoolmaster,  and  the  missionary. 

29.  The  country  gentleman  and  the  plebeian. 

30.  Ancient  and  modern  honors  to  the  dead. 

31.  Common  sense,  gonlus,  and  learning,  —  their  characteristics,  compara 

tive  value,  and  success. 

32.  The  prospects  of  a  scholar,  a  politician,  and  an  independent  gentleman. 

in  the  United  States. 

33.  Contemporary  and  subsequent  narratives,  of  historical  events. 

34.  Franklin,  Davy,  and  Fulton.     The  comparative  value  of  their  discove 

ries  and  improvements. 

35.  The  comparative  inuuencc  of  natural  scenery,  the  institutions  of  socie 

ty,  and  individual  genius  on  taste. 

36.  Heraclitus,  Democritus,  Epicurus,  and  Diogenes. 

37.  The  ages  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  Charles  the  Second,  Queen  Anne,  and 

the  present  age,  considered  in  a  literary  point  of  view. 

38.  Egypt  as  described  by  Herodotus,  Greece  under  Pericles,  the  Augustan 

age  of  Rome,  Spain  under  Isabella,  Italy  in  the  fifteenth  and  six- 
teenth centuries,  and  France  under  Louis  the  Fourteenth. 

39.  Reading,  writing,  observation  of  men  and  mamiers,  and  the  study  of 

nature,  as  means  of  intellectual  development. 

40.  Popular  elections,  a  free  press,  and  general  education. 

41.  The  Roman  ceremonies,  the  system  of  the  Druids,  the  religion  of  the 

Hindoos,  and  the  superstitions  of  the  American  Indians. 

42.  The  literature  and  morals  of  a  country,  as  afl'ected  by  the  efforts  of  in- 

dividual minds,  the  prevailing  religious  faith,  the  established  form  of 
government,  and  the  employment  most  general  among  the  people. 

43.  Actions,  words,  manners,  and  expression  of  countenance,  as  mdicative 

of  character. 

44.  The  poets  of  England,  Spain,  France,  and  Italy. 

4'5.  Tlie  military  character  of  Napoleon,  Washington,  Wellington,  Freder 

ick  the  Great,  and  Charles  the  Twelfth. 
4»5.  The  ages  of  Augustus,  Lorenzo  de  Medicis,  Louis  the  Fourteenth,  and 

Queen  Anne. 

47.  The  religious  institutions  of  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome. 

48.  Politics,  war,  literature,  and  science,  as  a  field  for  the  exercise  of 

talents. 

49.  Astronomy,  Anatomy,  the  instinct  of  animals,  and  the  moral  and  intel 

lectual  nature  of  man,  as  afibrding  proof  of  an  intelligent  Creator. 
.'50.  History,  biography,  and  fiction. 

51.  The  evils  or  a  life  of  solitude,  of  fashion,  of  business,  and  of  public 

office. 

52.  On  classical  learning,  the  study  of  mathematics,  and  of  the  science  of 

the  human  mind,  as  contributing  to  intellectual  culture. 

53.  On  the  operation  of  climate  on  the  moral,  intellectual,  and  military 

character. 

54.  On  the  power  of  the  oriental.  Gothic,  and  classical  superstitions,  to  af 

feet  the  imagination  and  the  feelings. 
!Vi.  On  pastoral,  epic,  and"dramatic  poetry. 

56.  On  the  rank  and  value  of  the  mental  endowments  of  Shakspeare,  Scott, 

Locke.  Newton,  and  the  Earl  of  Chatham. 

57.  Roman,  Grecian,  and  P'gyptian  remains. 

58.  On  the  influence  of  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter  upon  the 

thoughts,  feelings,  and  imagination. 

59.  Britain,  France,  Italy,  and  Greece,  as  interesting  to  an  American  trav 

eller. 
60    On  the  pleasures  of  the  antiquary,  the  traveller,  the  literary  recluse. 

and  the  man  of  business. 
61.  On  the  beneficial  eflects  of  mechanics,  chemistry,  astronomy,  and  agri 

culture. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  407 

b'^.  On  the  influence  of  peace  upon  the  condition  of  the  agi-icultuiist,  the 
manufacturer,  the  merchant,  and  the  professional  mail. 

63.  On  the  views  of  life  taken  by  Democritus,  Heraclitus,  Diogenes,  and 

Zeno. 

64.  On  the  tendency  of  poetry,  history,  and  ethical  science,  to  promote  im- 

provement in  virtue. 
35.  On  the  influence  on  personal  happiness,  of  natural  temper,  cultivated 
taste,  external  condition,  and  social  intercourse. 

66.  On  novelty,  subhmity,  beauty,  and  harmony,  as  sources  of  gratification. 

67.  Ancient  ethics,  considered  as  pictures  of  manners,  as  proofs  of  gemus, 

or  as  sources  of  entertainment. 

68.  The  union  which  a  harmony  of  motive  produces  between  men  of  dif- 

ferent pursuits,  and  that  which  results  merely  from  a  similarity  of 
action. 

69.  The  respective  claims  of  poetry,  painting,  architecture,  and  sculpture 

as  means  of  refinement  of  taste. 

70.  Personal  memoirs  and  formal  histories,  as  illustrations  of  national  pr< 

gress. 

71.  An  old  and  a  new  country,  as  fields  for  enterprise. 

72.  The  superiority  of  conscience  to  human  laws. 

73.  Ancient  and  modern  notions  of  liberty. 

74.  The  scientific  traveller  and  the  missionary. 

7,').  A  profound  j^losopby  and  a  wide  observation  of  men,  as  elements  c  * 
a  statesman. 

76.  The  pastoral  and  Uie  hunter's  life. 

77.  The  war  spirit  in  republics  and  in  monarchies. 

78.  Modern  explorations  in  Africa  and  America. 

79.  The  influence  of  devotion  to  the  person  of  the  Sovereign  in  monf.r  jhie  i, 

and  to  that  of  a  popular  favorite  in  republics. 

80.  Explorations  by  sea  and  by  land. 

SI.  The  study  of  grammer,  logic,  and  the  mathamatics,  as  contributing  to 
the  development  of  the  intellectual  powers. 

62.  Personal  beauty,  elevation  of  rank,  and  the  possession  of  tiches,  9S 

pa,ssports  in  society. 

63.  The  animal,  the  mineral,  and  the  vegetable  kingdoms,  as  fields  of  sci 

entific  discovery. 
S4.  The  pulpit,  the  prers,  and  the  school  room,  as  eflicient  agents  on  the 
morals  of  a  people. 

85.  The  horse,  the  cow,  a'^d  the  sheep,  as  contributing  to  the  comfort  and 

convenience  of  mankind. 

86.  The  expectation  of  reward  and  the  fear  of  punishment,  as  affecting  a 

moral  agent. 

87.  The  pursuits  of  agricultrve,  the  profession  of  arrap,  the  btt.iiness  of 

trade,  and  the  labors  of  the  mechanic,  as  afiectijig  the  taste  t  iC 
morals  of  a  people. 

88.  Color,  form,  and  size,  as  elemo.nts  of  physical  beauty 

69.  Quickness  of  perception,  retentiveness  of  memory,  and  i)^:Cdding  j  «r 

severance,  as  contributing  to  mental  advancement. 
M.  The  six  follies  of  science.     The  quadrature  of  the  circle  ;  the  rmulc^:!! 

cation  of  the  cube;   perpetual  motion;   the  philc^-pl/^c's  eU«ae 

magic  ;  and  judicial  astrology. 
?\.  Skepticism  and  credulity  compared  a<»  obstacles  to    v'ivV.VJir-d'.   '.t 

provement. 
P£.  Pxtry  and  history  considered  as  sources  of  arruscme   ., 


408  AIDS   TO   ENGLISU    COMPOSITION. 


SUBJECTS    FOR    COLLOQUYS,  OR   COLLOQUIAL    DISCUSfliOiiS 

1.  Attachment  to  party  as  a  ground  of  action,  for  an  upright  politician. 

2.  Ou  the  defects  and  advantages  of  history,  as  aflfording  a  knowledge  of 

the  motives  and  actions  of  individuals,  and  of  the  character  of  hu 
man  nature. 

3.  Dn  the  good  and  bad  effects  of  emulation. 

4.  On  the  moral  influence  of  the  Christian  Sabbath. 

5.  On  the  influence  of  fashion  on  the  judgment  of  right  and  wrong. 

6.  On  the  influence  of  the  multiplicity  of  books,  on  the  interests  of  htera 

ture  and  science. 

7.  Deference  to  great  names  in  philosophy,  and  to  high  rank  in  the  social 

state. 

8.  The  enthusiast  and  the  matter  of  fact  man. 

9.  On  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  resulting  to  a  scholftr,  from  fre 

quent  intercourse  with  mixed  society. 

10.  On  the  effects  of  literary  reviews,  as  at  present  conducted. 

11.  On  the  comparative  prevalence  and  strength  of  the  principle*  of  loyaJ 

ty  and  independence  in  man. 

12.  On  the  character  of  ancient  and  modem  patriotism.     .  .-; 

13.  Of  establishing  a  University  in  the  coimtry  or  in  a  cilj^' 

14.  Foreign  travellers  in  the  United  States. 

15.  On  the  different  views,  which  literary  men  take  of  the  world  at  tneir 

first  entrance  upon  it. 

16.  The  difference  of  manners  in  Rome  and  in  modem  civilized  states. 

17.  On  active  profession,  as  injuring  or  assisting  the  efforts  of  a  litemry 

man. 

18.  The  comparative  influence  of  governments  and  of  individuals,  in  effect 

ing  great  public  improvements. 

19.  The  literary  influence  of  a  reading  public. 

20.  The  views  taken  of  a  nation,  by  itself  and  others. 

21.  The  moral  effects  of  public,  and  of  domestic  amusements. 

22.  The  effects  of  controversy  on  partisans,  and  on  the  public. 

23.  The  influence  of  the  Roman  Gladiatorial  shows,  and  of  tlie   Greek 

games,  on  the  character  of  the  people. 

24.  The  comparative  effects  of  literature  and  of  science,  on  the  progress 

of  civilization. 

25.  The  effect  which  acquaintance  with  foreign  languages  has  upon  the 

originality  of  a  nation's  literature. 

26.  The  comparative  influence  of  individuals  and  learned  societies  in  form 

ing  the  literary  character  of  a  nation. 

27.  The  influence  of  the  multiplication  of  books  upon  literature. 

28.  The  study  of  nature,  and  of  man,  as  aflfording  a  proper  field  for  the 

poet. 

29.  The  standard  of  taste. 

30.  The  novels  of  Fielding,  Richardson,  and  the  author  of  Waverley. 

31.  The  comparative  importance  of  the  expeditions  to  ascertain  the  North 

West  passage,  ana  the  source  of  the  Niger. 

32.  Intellectual,  moral,  and  physical  education. 

33.  The  prospects  of  Christianity  in  India. 
3*1.  The  siifircs  of  Horace  and  Juvojial. 

35.  Hew  far  the  right  should  be  controlled  by  the  expedient. 

36.  On  the  comparative  value  of  contemporaneous  and  posthumous  fame 

37.  On  the  evils  of  anarchy,  and  of  an  arbitrary  government. 

38.  Diligent  observation  of  facts  and  philosophical  use  of  them. 

39.  On  superstition  and  skepticism. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  iOlf— 

40.  The  self-devotion  of  the  Christian  martyr  and  the  Koman  patriot. 

41.  Poets  and  novelists  of  the  poor. 

42.  Strafford  and  Sir  Henry  Vane  the  Younger. 

43.  The  idea  of  the  beautiful,  as  developed  in  Grecian  literature  and  art. 

44.  The  influence  of  the  association  of  ideas  on  our  practical  operations. 

45.  The  moral  and  intellectual  influence  of  the  principle  of  emulation,  on 

systems  of  education. 

46.  Entertaining  mysteries,  novels  of  real  life,  and  romantic  or  supematu 

ral  fictions,  as  aflfording  similar  species  of  delight. 

47.  The  Sacred  and  Profane  poets. 
48   Milton  and  Isaiah. 

49.  Johnson  and  St.  Paul. 

50.  Moore  and  David. 

51.  Addison  and  St.  John. 
62.  Byron  and  Ezekiel. 
53.  Hume  and  Moses. 

SUBJECTS    FOR   FORENSIC    DISPUTATIONS. 

1.  Whether  the  increased  facilities  of  intercourse  between  Europe  and  the 

United  States  be  favorable  to  this  country. 

2.  Whether  more  evil  or  good  is  to  be  expected  from  the  disposition  man 

ifested,  at  the  present  day,  to  try  existing  institutions  by  first  prin 
ciples. 

3.  W^hether  voting  by  ballot  should  be  introduced  into  all  elective  and  l6 

gislative  proceedings. 

4.  Wnhether  forms  of  government  exert  any  important  iafluence  on  the 

growth  and  character  of  national  literature. 

5.  Whether  any  attempt  should  be  made  to  preserve  severity  of  manners 

in  a  modern  republic. 

6.  Ought  Congress  to  pass  an  international  copy  right  law. 

7.  Is  there  reason  to  think  that  the  public  mind  will  ever  be  more  settled 

than  at  present,  about  the  character  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 

8.  Whether  more  good  than  evil  has  resulted  to  the  world,  from  the  life 

and  religion  of  Mahomet. 

9.  Wliether  popular  superstitions,  or  enli^tened  opinions,  be  most  favor 

able  to  the  growth  of  poetical  literature. 

10.  Whether  the  literature  of  America  be  injured  by  that  of  modem  foreign 

countries. 

11.  Whether  a  want  of  reverence  be  justly  chargeable  on  our  age  and 

country. 

12.  Whether  the  diversities  of  individual  character  be  owing  more  to  phys- 

ical, than  to  moral  causes. 

13.  Whether  the  advancement  of  civil  liberty  be  more  indebted  to  intellect 

ual  ctdture,  than  to  physical  suffering. 

14.  Whether  the  fine  or  the  useful  arts  afford  the  better  field  for  the  display 

of  originality. 

15.  Whether  prosperity  and  increase  of  wealth  have  a  favorable  influence 

upon  the  manners  and  morals  of  a  people. 

16.  Whether  modern  facilities  of  testing  literary  efforts  by  popular  opinion. 

be  unfavorable  to  the  production  of  great  works. 

17.  Whether  the  clioice  of  a  representative  should  be  restricted  to  the  in 

habitants  af  the  town  or  district  represented. 

18.  Whether  the  sum  of  human  happiness  on  earth  be  greater,  by  a  succes 

sion  of  generations,  than  it  would  have  been  by  one  continued  race  j 
the  number  of  inhabitants  being  the  same. 

19.  Whether,  in  a  public  seminary,  the  course  o^  study  established  by  nJ* 

should  be  the  same  for  all. 

20.  Do  savage  nations  possess  a  full  right  to  tne  soiL 

35 


410  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

<J1    Whether  a  State  have  a  right  to  recede  from  the  Umon. 

22  Whether,  in  times  of  pohtical  discussion,  it  is  the  dut--  of  every  citizoo 

to  declare  his  opinion,  and  attach  himself  to  son*         *y. 

23  Whether  there  were  greater  facilities,  m  ancient  tu  an  individual 

acquiring  influence,  than  there  are  now. 

24  Whether  the  inequalities  of  our  social  condition  be  favorable  to  the 

progress  of  knowledge. 

25.  Is  it  expedient  to  make  colonies  of  convicts. 

26.  Is  the  cause  of  despotism  strengthened  by  the  extermination  of  the 

Poles. 

27.  Whether  the  inequahties  of  genius  in  different  countries  be  owing  U 

moral  causes. 

28.  Whether  inflicting  capital  punishments  publicly  has  any  tendency  to  di 

minish  crime. 

29.  Whether  the  personal  dependence,  incident  to  a  minute  division  of 

labor  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  be  dangerous  to  our  free  institutions. 

30.  Whether  the  influences  which  tend  to  perpetuate,  be  stronger  than  those 

which  tend  to  dissolve,  the  union  ot  the  United  States. 

31.  Whether  we  should  abstain  from  publishing  the  truth,  from  a  fear  le<?t 

the  world  be  not  prepared  to  receive  it. 

32.  Whether  the  popularity  of  a  literary  work  is  to  be  received  as  an  evi 

dence  of  its  real  merits. 

33.  Is  there  any  objection  to  a  man's  proposing  himself  for  public  oflSce, 

and  using  means  to  obtain  it. 

34.  Does  proselytism  favor  the  cause  of  truth. 

35.  Whether  privateering  be  incident  to  the  right  of  war. 

36.  Whether  a  written  constitution  be  eflScacious  in  securing  civil  liberty. 

37.  Whether  the  progress  of  knowledge  lessen  the  estimation  of  the  fine 

arts. 

38.  Whether  the  exclusion  of  foreign  articles,  to  encourage  domestic  man 

ufnctures,  be  conducive  to  public  wealth. 

39.  Whether  the  Avorld  be  advancing  in  moral  improvement. 

40.  Whether  the  progress  of  civilization  diminish  the  love  of  martial  glory. 

41.  Whether  personal  interest  in  a  subject  of  investigation  be  favorable  to 

the  discovery  of  truth. 

42.  Whether  the  power  of  eloquence  be  diminished  by  the  progress  of  lit 

erature  and  science. 

43.  Whether  the  prevalence  of  despotism  in  Asia  be  occasioned  principally 

by  physical  causes. 

44.  Whether  the  present  circumstances  of  Europe  furnish  reason  to  expect 

an  essential  amelioration  of  human  affairs. 

45.  Do  facts,  or  fiction,  contribute  most  to  mental  enjoyment. 

46.  Whether  writers  or  fiction  be  morally  responsible  for  unchaste  and  pro 

fane  language  in  their  productions. 

47.  The  pol'cy  of  requiring  property  gualifications  for  office. 

48.  Ought  capital  punishments  to  be  inflicted  in  time  of  peace. 

49.  Does  the  system  of  modam  warfare  indicate  any  advancement  in  civil 

ization. 

50.  Is  the  existence  of  two  groat  political  parties  in  our  countiy  desirable. 

51.  Has  her  union  with  England  been  detrimental  to  Ireland. 

SUBJECTS  FOR  DELIBERATIVE,  POLITICAL,  CRITICAL,  PHILU 
SOPniCAL,  AND  LITERARY  DISCUSSIONS,  DISQUISITI-ONS 
INQUIRIES,   &C. 

1.  On  the  right  of  legislative  bodies  to  provide  by  law  for  the  support  ol 

religion.    (Deliberative  Discussion.) 
8.  The  character  of  a  philosophical  historian.  (?hilo8ophical  Disquisition. « 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  41) 

3.  The  effect  of  prevailing  philosophical  views  on  the  style  of  elegant  liter 

ature.     (Disquisition.) 

4.  On  the  alleged  degeneracy  of  animals  and  vegetables  in   America. 

(Philosophical  Discussion.) 

5.  Whether  works  of  imagination  should  be  designed  to  produce  a  specific 

moi-al  effect.     (Literary  Discussion.) 

6.  The  English  styles  that  have  attracted  the  most  imitators.    (Literary 

Disquisition.) 
".  "  Mahomet  Ali."     (Political  Disquisition.) 

8.  Whether  national  literature  is  to  be  regarded  more  as  a  cause  or  a  con 

sequence  of  national  refinement.     (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

9.  Originality  in  literature,  as  affected  by  sound  criticism.    (Literary  Dis 

quisition, 
10.  The  influence  of  superstition  on  science  and  literature.    (Philosophical 

Disquisition.) 
n.  On  the  materiality  of  light.     (Philosophical  Disputation.) 

12.  Is  the  preservation  of  the  balance  of  power  a  justifiable  cause  of  war. 

(Deliberative  Discussion.) 

13.  On  the  causes  of  the  variety  of  complexion  and  figure  in  the  human 

species.  J  Philosophical  Disputation.) 

14.  On  the  poKcy  of  encouraging  manufacturing  estabUshments  in  th« 

United  States.    (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

15.  The  merits  of  geological  systems.    (Disquisition.) 

16.  The  comparative  interest  and  importance  of  Grecian  and  Roman  his 

tory.     (Literary  Discussion.) 

17.  The  causes  of  the  present  pecuniary  distresses  of  the  commercial  world 

(Disquisition.) 

18.  The  effects  of  the  crusades.    (Literary  Inquiry.) 

19.  Changes  in  EngHsh  style,  since  the  time  of  Milton.    (Literary  Discus 

sion.) 
iO.  Comparative  advantages  of  politics  and  literature  as  professions  m  thi*- 

country.    (Deliberative  Discussion.) 
^1.  The  influence  of  the  dramatic  writers  on  the  age  of  Elizabeth  ane 

Charles  the  Second.    (Literary  Discussion.) 
JQ.  The  restoration  of  Greece  to  political  independence.  (Deliberative  Dis 

cussion.) 

23.  The  literary  influence  of  the  early  English  prose  writers.    (Literary 

Disquisition.) 

24.  Of  presenting  literature  and  science  in  popular  forms.    (Literary  Dia 

cussion.) 

25.  Manual  and  intellectual  labor.    (Philosophical  Discussion.) 

26.  Will  the  present  proposed  parliamentary  reform  endanger  the  monarch 

ical  and  aristocratical  portion  of  the  British  constitution.    (Deliber 
ative  Discussion.) 

27.  Importance  of  independent  criticism  to  the  growth  of  national  literature 

(Literary  Disquisition.) 

28.  Causes  of  ill  health  in  literary  men.     (Philosophical  Disquisition.) 

29.  Th«  'mfluence  of  superstition  on  science  and  hterature.    (Philosophica 

Discussion.) 

30.  English  biography  and  French  memoirs.    (Literary  Discussion.) 

31.  Are  political  improvements  best  effected  by  rulers,  or  the  people 

(Deliberative  Discussion.) 

32.  The  influence  of  ancient  art  on  ancient  literature.    (Literary  Disquis 

ition.) 

33.  The  poet  of  an  early  age,  and  of  a  civilized  one.   (Literary  Discussion. 

34.  Comparative  utility  of  the  moral- and  physical  sciences,  in  the  presen 

age.    (Philosophical  Discussion.) 

35.  On  what  does  the  security  of  our  institutions  depend  ?    (Political  Dis 

quisition.) 


412  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

36.  Tne  exp  ediency  of  intervention  by  one  nation  in  the  civil  and  public 

contests  of  others.     (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

37.  The  evils  and  benefits  of  laige  books.     (Literary  Discussion.) 

38.  Skepticism  and  love  of  troth,  as  indications  of  mental  character  and 

vigor.     (Philosophical  Discussion.) 

39.  Tendency  of  free  institutions  to  bring  first  principles  into  question. 

(Deliberative  Discussion.) 

40.  The  influence  of  Lord  Bacon's  writings  on  the  progress  of  knowledge 

(Philosophical  Discussion.) 

41.  An  author's  writing  many  books,  or  resting  his  fame  on  a  few.    (Lite" 

ary  Discussion.; 

42.  Universal  suffrage.    (Political  Disquisition.) 

43.  The  resources  and  encouragements  of  elegant  literature  in  the  Old  and 

New  World.     (Literary  Discussion.) 

44.  The  comparative  power  of  moral  and  physical  causes  in  forming  the 

American  character.     (Philosophical  Discussion.) 

45.  Are  short  terms  of  political  office  desirable  ?   (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

46.  Modern  imitation  of  the  ancient  Greek  tragedy.   (Literary  Disquisition.) 

47.  The  real  or  supposed  decline  of  science,  at  the  present  day.    (Philos 

ophical  Disquisition.) 

48.  English  novels  in  the  reigns  of  George  the  Secondhand  George  the 

Third.     (Literarv  Discussion.) 

49.  The  expediency  of  making  authorship  a  profession.    (Philosophical 

Discussion.) 

50.  Whether  patriotism  was  inculcated  to  excesss  in  the  ancient  republics 

(Deliberative  Discussion.) 

51.  The  life  and  services  of  Linnaeus.    (Philosophical  Disquisition.) 

52.  The  observance  of  poetical  justice  in  fibtitious  writings.   (Literary  Dis 

quisition.) 

53.  Greek  and  Roman  comeaies.    (Critical  Disquisition.) 

54.  Education  as  aiming  to  develope  all  the  faculties  equally,  or  to  fost#r 

individual  peculiarities  of  taste  and  intellect.     (Philosophical  Discus- 
sion.) 

55.  Utility  of  chemical  knowledge  to  professional  men.    (Philosophical 

Disquisition ) 

56.  The  expediency  of  religious  establishments  under  any  form  of  civil 

goverment.    (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

57.  On  the  practicability  of  reaching  the  North  Pole,  and  the  advantages 

which  would  attend  such  an  expedition.   (Philosophical  Disputation.) 

68.  Should  .the  right  of  suflVage  in  any  case  depend  upon  different  prin 

ciples,  as  it  respects  dilVercnt  classes  or  individuals  in  the  same 
country.    ^Deliberative  Discussion.) 

69.  On  the  probability  of  prolonging  the  term  of  human  life,  by  the  aid  of 

physical  or  moral  causes.     (Philosophical  Discussion.) 

60.  UpKjn  the  Huttonian  and  Wemerian  theories  of  the  earth.    (Philosoph 

ical  Disputation.) 

61.  On  the  use  of  heathen  mythology  in  modern  poetry.    (Literary  Discus 

sion.) 
02.  On  the  tendency  of  a  legal  provision  for  the  support  of  the  poor,  t« 

diminish  human  misery.    (^Deliberative  Discussion.) 
63.  The  moral  tendency  of  the  natural  sciences.    (Philosophical  Discas 

sion.) 
(54.  The  merits  of  the  histories  of  Hume  and  Lingaid.    (Literary  Discus 

sion.) 

65.  Liberal  principles,  as  affecting  the  strength  of  a  government.    (Delib- 

erative DLscussion.) 

66.  Political  patronage  in  Republics.    (Political  Disquisitions.) 

67.  The  poet  of  an  early,  and  of  a  civilized  age.    (Literary  Discussion ;  see 

Ko.a?.)  -e       V  .r 


AIDS   TO    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION.  419 

6«.  Are  mental  resources  and  moral  energy  most  developed  in  unpnncipled 
men  ?     (Philosophical  Discussion.) 

69.  Whether  heat  have  an  independent  existence.    (Philosophical  Dispu 

tations.) 

70.  On  the  probable  disposition  and  mutual  relation  of  the  fixed  stars. 

71.  On  the  alleged  improvement  in  the  art  of  composition  since  the  age  of 

Queen  Anne. 

72.  On  the  expediency  of  a  national  university.    (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

73.  Whether  the  climate  of  any  country  have  undergone  any  permanent 

change.     (Philosophical  Disputation.) 

74.  "W  tether  extensiveness  of  territory  be  favorable  to  the  preservation  oi 

a  republican  form  of  government. 

75.  What  reasons  are  there  for  not  expecting  another  great  epic  poem 

(Literary  Inquiry.) 

76.  The  probability  of  the  study  of  the  dead  languages  always  being  essen 

tiai  to  a  liberal  education. 

77.  Why  are  men  pleased  with  imitation,  and  disgusted  with  mimicry  ? 

78.  What  grounds  are  there  distinct  from  revelation,  to  believe  in  the  im 

mortality  of  the  soul  ? 

79.  On  the  comparative  utility  of  the  moral  and  physical  sciences,  in  the 

United  States. 

80.  The  views  entertained  of  the  duties  and  objects  of  public  offices  by  the 

incumbents. 

81.  The  use  of  a  diversity  of  languages. 

82.  The  amount  and  character  of  crime  in  an  age  of  barbarism,  and  an  age 

of  laws. 

83.  An  inquiry  into  the  cause  of  the  growth  of  the  power  of  ancient  Rome. 

The  favoring  circumstances,  —  character  of  the  people,  —  local  situa 
tion,  —  early  institutions  of  the  republic,  —  condition  oi  other  states. 

84.  The  use  of  ballads  and  popular  songs  in  a  rude  and  in  a  civilized  age. 

85.  The  assistance  derived  from  friends,  party,  and  wealth,  in  a  democracy ; 

and  from  ancestry,  court  favor,  and  title,  in  a  despotism. 
8&  The  favorite  of  nature,  and  the  creature  of  art. 

87.  The  connexion  of  religious  celebrations  with,  public  festivities,  as  seen 

both  in  Pagan  and  Christian  countries. 

88.  Comparison  of  Horace's  reasons  for  abandoning  irreligion,  (See  Book  1st, 

Ode  28th,  Parens  Deorum,)  with  those  that  might  affect  a  modern 
skeptic. 

89.  Comparison  of  Hume  with  Sallust  in  the  delineation  of  character. 

90.  Sketches  of  character,  as  given  by  the  historian,  with  Shakspeare's  (or 

the  dramatist's)  mode  of  acquainting  us  with  men. 

91.  Spoken  and  written  language,  as  deceptive  or  inefficient  modes  of  com- 

munication. {Note.  We  are  often  disappointed  in  reading,  what  we 
much  admired  in  hearinsr  ^ 

92.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  negative  character.    (Note.  "  De- 

ficiency of  character  is  oftoner  taken  for  positive  perfection ;  want  of 
ardor  is  exalted  into  self-command  and  superior  prudence.  The  cola 
and  indifferent  never  offend  by  zealous  interference,  and  never  get 
into  difficulties.") 

^C  The  causes  which  have  checked  progress,  or  improvement  in  moral  and 
physical  science,  or  in  arts  and  government. 

»«4.  The  triumphs  of  the  soldier  and  the  philosopher,  as  of  Alexander  and 
Aristotle,  Bonaparte  and  Cuvier. 

95.  Elevation  of  rank,  as  affecting  turpitude  of  character. 

96.  The  influence  of  successive  generations,  instead  of  one  permanent  race 

on  human  improvement. 

97.  The  English  language  as  it  is  spoken,  and  as  it  is  written. 

98.  Of  what  classes  of  pleasure  and  gratification  are  those  unfortunate 

beings  susceptible,  who  are  destitute  of  the  senses  of  sight  and  hear 
ing,  as  well  as  the  faculty  of  speech  ? 

3a* 


414  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

99.  Is  the  loss  of  sight,  or  of  speech,  the  greater  deprivation  V 

100.  Of  making  changes  in  tlie  political  constitution  of  free  states,  easy 

(Deliberative  Discussion.) 

101.  The  history  of  Astronomy.     (Disquisition.) 

102.  The  grounds  for  thinking  that  the  Malaria  will  eventually  depopulate 

Rome.     (Philosophical  Disputation.) 

103.  The  eftects  on  American  literature,  of  a  community  of  language  with 

England.     (Literary  Discussion.) 

104^  The  comparative  advantages  of  Western  Africa  and  Hayti,  for  colo 
nizing  free  blacks.     (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

tC5.  A  history  of  English  Literature,  in  which  some  notice  may  be  taken  of 
the  origin  and  progress  of  the  language,  the  influx  of  different  terms  ; 
the  peculiar  styles  which  from  age  to  age  have  been  predominant ; 
the  writers  who  have  contributed  to  vary,  and  those  who  have  as- 
sisted in  fixing  its  present  form,  structure  and  character ;  the  influence 
of  the  introduction  of  scientific  terms,  —  the  Latin  and  Greek  style, 
the  French  style ;  the  Saxon  peculiarities,  —  an  enumeration  of  the 
writers  who  may  be  considereu  as  of  standard  authority,  —  the  poets 
the  historians,  —  the  essayists,  —  the  moral,  metaphysical,  religious 
philological,  philosophical  and  scientific  writers,  —  the  copiousness, 
precision,  force,  and  elegance  of  the  language ;  the  prospects  of  its 
alteration,  extinction,  or  universal  prevalence,  —  the  character,  style, 
beauties,  defects  and  influence  of  the  writings  of  the  respective  dis- 
tmguished  authors  of  each  age,  —  the  subjects  which  they  treated, 
ana  the  interest  felt  by  the  civilized  world  in  general  on  these 
subjects  respectively.  [These  hints  will  probably  furnish  subjects 
for  many  dissertations,  disquisitions,  &c.,  connected  wito  the  hist<ry 
of  EngUsh  Literature.] 


SUBJECTS    FOR   POEMS    IN    ENGLISH,   LATIN,    GREEK,  &C. 

1.  Numina  Veterum,  or  the  Ancient  Divinities. 

2.  Nature,  the  source  of  poetic  inspiration. 

3.  On  the  discovery  of  Herculaneum.    (Greek.) 

4.  On  the  pleasures  and  pains  of  the  student 

5.  On  the  pursuit  o^  fame. 

6.  Ode  to  fancy. 

7.  Elocjuence. 

8.  Anticipation. 

9.  A  vision  of  ambition. 

10.  The  missionary. 

11.  Ad  spom.    (Latin.)    To  hope. 

12.  Novelty.    (Greek.)     Iltfi  vtvrnrot. 
13i  Ad  pacem.    (Latin.) 

14.   Contcini)Iation. 
15    On  fame. 

16.  On  Kink  and  titles. 

17.  On  civil  liberty. 
18    Refinement. 


SUBJECTS   FOR   DISSERTATIONS. 

1  On  diversity  of  talents  among  mankind. 

2  On  the  dependence  of  the  mental  operations  on  the  condition  of  the 

corporeal  frame. 

3.  On  the  causes  of  the  superiority  of  chiu-acter  in  modem  Europe. 

4.  On  the  causes,  which,  independently  of  their  merit,  hj\ve  contributed  to 

elevatis  the  ancient  classics. 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  415 

5.  Milton  and  Homer  contrasted  and  compared. 

i\  On  the  literature  of  the  Romans,  as  afi'ected  by  their  government,  re 
ligion,  and  state  of  society. 

7.  The  influence  of  the  fine  arts  upon  religion. 

8.  The  interest  attached  to  places  where  distinguished  persons  have  dwelt, 

or  which  poets  have  commemorated. 

9.  The  importance  of  a  popular  history,  in  which  the  actions  of  men  shall 

be  represented  according  to  the  principles  of  the  Christian  religion. 

10.  The  peculiar  faciUties,  in  modern  times,  for  effecting  great  purposes  in 

government  and  in  religion. 

11.  A  comparison  of  the  domestic  life  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 

and  that  of  our  own  countrymen. 

12.  On  the  Influence  of  Christianity  in  producing  the  moral  and  intellectual 

revival  of  Europe,  after  the  dark  ages. 

13.  On  the  utility  of  the  study  of  political  economy,  considered  in  relation 

to  our  own  country. 

14.  On  the  necessity  of  public  and  private  patronage^  to  the  advancement 

of  literature  m  our  country. 

15.  The  geological  age  of  the  world. 

16.  Agitation,  as  a  means  of  effecting  reform. 

17.  The  conflict  of  duties. 

18.  On  the  benefit  accruing  to  an  individal  from  a  knowledge  of  the  physi 

cal  sciences. 

19.  On  Christianity,  as  affecting  our  domestic  habits. 

20.  Severity  of  manners  in  a  republic. 

21.  Heaven  lies  about  us  in  our  infancy. 

22.  The  influence  of  fashion  on  our  moral  judgments. 

23.  The  power  of  the  law  in  free  states. 

24.  The  character  of  Chief  Justice  Marshall. 

25.  Distinctions  of  rank  in  the  United  States. 

26.  The  encouragement  to  young  men  to  educate  themselves,  exclusiveij 

or  chiefly  for  high  political  ofiices. 

27.  Originality  of  thought  supposed  to  be  necessarily  lessened  as  the  world 

grows  older. 

28.  Modes  of  publishing,  circulating,  and  perpetuating  literary  works  in 

different  ages  and  coimtries. 

29.  Lafayette. 

30.  The  irresponsibleness  of  anonymous  writings. 

31.  The  respect  due  from  conquerors  to  works  of  art. 

32.  The  eftect  of  maritime  enterprises  on  the  intellectual  character  of  a 

nation. 

33.  The  field  opened  for  men  of  enterprise  in  the  West. 

34.  Respect  for  public  monuments,  whether  triumphal  or  for  the  dead. 

35.  Character  and  writings  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh. 

36.  Literary  character  of  our  first  settlers. 

37.  The  infirmities  of  men  of  genius. 

38.  The  prospects  of  genuine  liberty  in  Europe. 

39.  The  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  institution  of  Lyceums. 

40.  The  benefit  accruing  to  an  individual  from  a  knowledge  of  the  exact 

sciences.    (See  No.  18.) 

41.  Prospects  of  young  men  in  the  different  learned  professions 

42.  The  character  of  Socrates. 

43.  Long  Life, 

44.  On  the  charge  of  ingratitude  made  against  republics. 

45.  The  effect  of  the  universal  diffusion  of  knowledge  on  the  well  being  of 

society. 
40.  The  domestic  life  of  the  Roaians. 
47    The  domestic  life  of  the  Greeks. 
48.  The  domestic  life  of  the  ancient  Egyotians.  . 


416  AIDS   TO   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

49.  On  ima^nation  and  sensibility,  as  affected  by  the  age  of  the  individual 

50.  Of  making  changes  in  an  author's  works  to  adapt  them  to  modem  tastes. 

51.  On  the  reciprocal  influence  of  literature  and  morals. 

52.  On  simplicity  and  ornament  in  writing. 

53.  Characteristic  defects  of  modern  English  poetry. 

54.  The  effects  of  seclusion  and  of  society  upon  the  literary  character. 

55.  Public  opinion,  as  a  standard  of  right. 

56.  The  moral  power  of  sympathy. 

57.  The  different  views  which  literary  men  take  of  the  world,  at  their  first 

entrance  upon  it.     (See  Colloquy,  No.  15.) 
68.  The  view  which  a  great  mind  takes  of  its  own  productions. 

59.  The  principal  charges  preferred  against  the  present  age,  by  philoscphere 

and  philanthropists. 

60.  Chaucer  and  his  a^e. 

61.  Visits  to  remarkable  places. 

6^.  The  contributions  of  oratory  to  literature. 

63.  The  influence  of  the  multiplication  of  books  upon  literature. 

64.  The  effect  of  belief  in  immortality  upon  literature. 

65.  The  restraints  imposed,  in  modern  times,  on  the  warlike  spirit 

66.  The  lyric  poetry  of  Scotland. 

67.  The  fate  of  reformers. 

68.  The  dread  of  the  prevalence  of  skepticism. 

69.  Ages  of  action  and  of  reflection. 

70.  The  moral  tendency  of  the  principles  of  Malthus. 

71.  The  education  of  the  senses. 

72.  On  the  acquisition  and  use  of  intellectual  power. 

73.  The  literary  character  of  the  sacred  Scriptures. 

SUBJECTS     FOR     ORATIONS     IN     ENGLISH,     FRENCH,     LATIN, 
GREEK,    SPANISH,    HEBREW,  &C.,   ESSAYS,   &C 

1.  The  utilitarian  system  of  education. 

2.  Self  sacrifice. 

3.  Philanthropy. 

4.  On  the  names  of  Deity,  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.    (Hebrew.) 

5.  On  the  old  age  of  the  scholar. 

6.  On  the  importance  of  classical  literature. 

7.  On  the  durability  of  our  political  institutions. 

8   The  effect  of  miracles  on  the  character  of  tlie  Jews.    (Hebrew.) 

9.  On  the  progress  of  the  exact  sciences  in  France  and  England.  (Essay.) 

10.  On  the  progress  of  literature.     (Greek.) 

11.  On  the  Roman  character  and  institutions.     (Latin.) 

12.  On  the  dignity,  and  utility  of  the  philosophy  of  the  human  mind. 

13.  The  aspect  of  revolutions  on  the  advancement  of  the  mind 

14.  On  the  decline  of  poetry. 

15.  On  the  cultivation  of  the  taste  and  imagination 

16.  On  the  fallacy  of  history.  ^ 

17.  On  litorarv  evils. 

18.  On  the  inftucnce  of  philosophy  on  Christianity. 

19.  On  the  inflncnce  of  the  arts  and  sciences  on  civil  liberty. 

20.  On  the  diflcrent  stylos  of  eloquence  prevailing  at  different  periods  of 

society. 

21.  Public  opinion. 

22.  The  spirit  which  should  accompany  our  republican  institutions. 

23.  Public  station. 

24.  A  salutary  oration. 

25.  A  valedictory  oration.         ^ 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  417 

20.  On  an  acquaintance  with  the  Spanish  language  and  Uteratare.    (In 
Spanish.) 

27.  On  the  character  of  Byron. 

28.  On  the  progress  of  refinement. 

29.  On  the  condition  and  prospects  of  the  American  people 

30.  On  the  sublimity  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

31.  De  recentioribus  cum  antiquis   collatis ;  or,  ancients  ana   moderns 

compared.     (In  Latin. '^ 

32.  On  American  feeling. 

33.  On  national  eloquence. 

34.  The  influence  of  commerce  upon  letters. 

35.  A  modern  canon  of  criticism. 
36-  Supposed  degeneracy  of  the  age. 

37.  No  good  that  is  possible,  but  shall  one  day  be  real. 

38.  Pubhc  recreations. 

39.  Empiricism. 

40.  The  literary  profession. 

41.  Moral  effort. 

42.  De  virorum  illustrium  exemplis.   (Latin.)  Tne  examples  of  illustriou? 

men. 

43.  Criticism. 

44.  The  Christian  philosophy,  its  political  application. 

45.  Mental  refinement. 

46.  Popularity. 

47.  Decision  of  character,  as  demanded  in  our  day  and  country. 

48.  The  character  of  Lord  Bacon. 

49.  The  diversities  of  character. 

50.  Literary  justice. 

51.  Superstition. 

52.  The  influence  of  speculative  minds. 

53.  American  aristocracy. 

54.  The  value  of  the  political  lessons  left  us  by  the  founders  of  our  free 

institutions. 

55.  Enthusiasm. 

56.  De  mortuis  nil  nisi  bonum.    (Latin.)    Speak  no  evil  of  the  dead 

57.  The  spirit  of  reform. 

58.  The  spirit  of  ancient  and  modem  education. 

59.  The  lot  of  the  portrayer  of  passion. 

60.  The  love  of  truth  —  a  practical  principl. 

61.  The  progress  of  man. 

62.  Kadicalism. 

63.  Ancient  veneration  for  the  public. 

64.  The  dangers  of  intolerance  under  a  popular  government. 

65.  The  dangers  to  which  the  minds  of  young  men  in  our  country  are 

exposed. 

66.  The  character  and  prospects  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

67.  Mutation  of  taste. 

68.  Patriotism. 

69.  Every  man  a  debtor  to  his  profession. 

70    Of  living  in  times  of  great  intellectual  excitement. 

71.  The  diffusion  of  scientific  knowledge  among  the  people. 

72.  The  importance  of  efforts  and  institutions  for  the  diffusion  of  know 

ledge. 

73.  Early  prejudices. 

74.  The  advancement  of  the  age. 

75.  The  progress  of  hiiman  nature. 

76.  Moral  sublimity. 

77.  Home  —  the  American  home. 

^5-  The  permanence  of  literary  fame. 


418  AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

79.  The  claims  of  the  age  on  the  young  men  of  America. 

80.  On  Physiognomy.     (In  Hebrew.) 

81.  Sur  la  Revolution  Francaise.    (French.)     On  the  French  Bevolntioa 

82.  On  decision  of  chai-acter. 

83.  On  innovation. 

84.  On  the  restoration  of  Greece. 

85.  De  institutorum  Americanorum  eventtis  et  libertatis  causae  conjunc 

tione.     (Latin.) 

86.  The  middle  ages. 

87.  De  oraculis.    (Latin.) 

88.  The  heroic  character. 

89.  The  duties  of  republican  citizens. 

90.  The  duties  of  an  American  citizen. 

91.  On  republican  institutions  as  affecting  private  character. 

92.  On  imagination  as  affecting  individual  nappiness. 
93    On  war. 

94.  De  Romanae  libertatis  et  eloquentise  casu.    The  decline  of  Romoz 

liberty  and  eloquence. 

95.  Views  of  happiness. 

96.  De  Caii  Marii  sevo.    (Latin.)    The  age  of  Caius  Marius. 

97.  Skepticism. 

98.  De  Testis  diebus  qui  nostra  in  Universitate  celebrantur.    (Latin.) 

99.  Modern  patriotism. 

100.  De  Uteris  Latinis. 

101.  The  sacrifices  and  recompense  of  literary  life. 

102.  Quid  de  artibus  ingenuis  m  civitatibus  Americae  sperandum  sit 

103.  The  American  literary  character. 

104.  De  Locorum  in  aniraum  vi. 

105.  Martvrdom. 

106..  Socrates.    (Greek.) 

107.  De  priscorum  diis.    (Latin.)    The  ancient  divinities. 

108.  On  the  reciprocal  influence  of  genius  and  knowledge. 

109.  On  the  revolutionary  spirit  of  modern  times. 

110.  On  the  durability  of  the  Federal  Union. 

111.  Present  influences  on  American  literature. 

112.  The  return  to  Palestine. 

113.  De  Graecarum  literarum  studio.     (Latin.) 

114.  Do  vitae  in  Universitate  nostra. 

115.  Elements  of  poetry  and  romance  in  Amenc« 

116.  Do  philosophiae  studio. 

117.  The  pride  of  scholarship. 

118.  The  physical  sciences. 

119   The  present  and  former  condition  of  Greece.    (  Gt«.4c.  ; 
too.  De  oratoribus  Americauis. 

121.  Periodical  literature. 

122.  De  luijas  temporis  indole. 

123.  The  teacher. 

124.  De  eloqucntia;  studio  in  scholis  nostris  ceglootC'. 

125.  American  political  influences. 

126.  De  literarum  scholis  nostris. 

127.  The  scholar's  hope.  , 

128.  De  rebus  pretcritis  et  presentibus. 

129.  Pursuit  or  universal  truth. 

130.  Literne  Americana;. 

131.  Revolutions  of  litorature. 

132.  De  lingua;  Latino;  hoc  tempore  nsu, 

133.  The  taking  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls. 

134.  The  progress  of  human  sentiments 

135.  '1  he  political  pros^jects  of  Russia. 


4IDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION.  419 

136.  The  advantages  of  speaking  in  French  —  in  Greek,  &c. 

137.  The  moral  influence  of  science. 

138.  The  prospects  of  America. 

139.  Literary  vanity. 

140.  The  crusades. 

141.  On  artificial  aids  to  memory. 

142.  On  Phrenology. 

143.  On  Mesmerism. 

144.  On  the  proneness  of  genius  to  theorizing. 

145.  On  intellectual  culture. 

146.  On  the  prevalence  of  erroneous  views  of  the  value  of  metaphysical 

science. 

147.  The  contributions  of  the  fine  arts  to  the  pleasures  of  the  domestic 

circle. 

148.  The  prospects  of  a  universal  language. 

149.  On  ancient  and  modern  democracy. 

1 50.  On  Aristocracy. 

151.  The  future  prospects  of  the  United  States. 


XCIX. 


LIST  OF  WORKS  CONSULTED  IN  THE  PREPARATION  OF 
THIS  VOLUME. 

In  presenting  a  list  of  authorities  which  have  been  consulted  in  the  pre 
paration  of  this  volume,  the  author  makes  this  general  acknowledgment  — 
that,  as  usefulness,  not  originality,  has  been  his  aim,  he  has  in  some  in 
stances  copied  verbatim  from  the  pages  of  those  in  whom  he  has  found  any 
thing  of  value  subservient  to  his  purpose ;  in  some  he  has  taken  the  liberty 
to  alter  the  phraseology,  and  in  others  entirely  to  remodel  the  principles 
which  he  has  found  scattered  throughout  these  authorities.  The  works  to 
which  he  has  been  most  largely  indebted,  are  Booth's  Pi-inciples  of  English 
Composition,  Walker's  Teacher's  Asssistant,  Newman's,  Blair's,  Whately's, 
and  Jamieson's  Rhetoric,  and  Jardine's  Principles  of  English  Composition. 
Other  works  from  which  he  has  gleaned  something  of  value,  or  hints  for 
the  improvement  of  what  he  has  elsewhere  gathered,  are  as  follow  : 

Rippingham's  Rules  of  English  Composition ;  Rice's  Composition ; 
Carey's  English  Prosody;  Roe's  Elements  of  English  Metre;  Steele's 
Prosodia  Rationahs  ;  Crabbe's  Synonymes  ;  Harris's  Hermes ;  Pickbourne  on 
the  English  Verb ;  D'Israeli's  Curiosities  of  Modem  Literature  ;  Walker's, 
Johnson's,  Sheridan's,  Richardson's,  and  Webster's  Dictionaries  ;  Locke's 
Essay  on  the  Understanding ;  Watts  on  the  Mind ;  Dictionary  of  Quota 
tions  ;  Andrew's  and  Stoddard's,  and  Adam's  Latin  Grammars  ;  Murray's, 
Brown's,  Felton's,  Lennie's,  Parker's,  and  Fox's  English  Grammars; 
Hedge's  Logic ;  Encyclopa;dia  Americana ;  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Scien 
ces ;  Towne's  Analysis  of  Derivative  Words ;  American  First  Class  Book 
Mayo's  Lessons  on  Objects ;  Miller's  Practice  of  English  Composition 
Lockhart's  Life  of  Scott ;  Taylor's  Elements  of  Thought ;  Hannam's  Pulpit 
Assistant ;  Claude's  Essay  on  the  Composition  of  a  Sermon  ;  The  London 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Education ;  Beauties  of  History ;  The  Spectator ; 
Inn's  Rhetorical  Class  Book ;  Lallemand's  Artillery  Service  :  Beclard's 
Physiology;  Poole's  English  Parnasr.us;  The  School  and  the  School 
master ;  Bentlev's  Miscellanv;  Quarles'  Books  of  Emblems  ;  Knox's  Essays 
Hay's  Biographv. 


420 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


c. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS  NOTICED  IN  THIS  WORK 


Abstracts,  page  211< 
Accent,  its  effect,  16. 

"    Acute,  28  and  31. 

"     Grave,  28  and  31. 

"    Circumflex,  28  and  32. 
Acrostic,  289. 
Agate  type,  312. 
Affix,  35. 
Affixes,  Alphabetical  Synopsis  of,  37. 

"    to  Affixes,  38. 
Alexandrine  verse,  232  and  236. 
Allegory,  131. 

"    Different  kinds  of,  132. 

"    Instances  of,  note^  132. 
Alliteration,  151  and  283. 

*'  Useful  as  an  aid  to  Memory, 
152. 

"    Remarkable  instances  of,  152. 

"    Alphabetical,  iwte,  152^ 
Allusion,  149. 

Ambassadors,  Titles  of,  190. 
Amphibrach,  231. 
Amplification,  65  and  218. 

"    Object  of,  218. 
Anagrams,  86. 
Analogy,  110. 

"    the    foundation    of    Simile, 
Comparison,  and  Emblem, 
note,  123. 
Analysis,  Rhetorical,  note,  306. 
Anapaest,  231. 
Anapaestic  verses,  231. 

*'    of  what  they  consist,  233. 

"    Dr.  Carey's  remarks  on  their 
Effect,  note,  239. 
Anticlimax,  149. 
Antistrophe,  286. 
Antithesis,  125. 

"    Rules  of,  126. 

"    Author  of  Lacon's  Remarks 
on,  note,  126. 
Antcnomasia,  63. 

"    much  used  by  historical  writ- 
ers, note,  65. 
Aphseresis,  76. 
Apologue  and  Fable,  136. 
Apostrophe,  28,  30,  77,  143. 

♦'  peculiar  (as  a  rhetorical  fig- 
ure) to  Poetry  and  Oratory, 
144. 


Apothem,    Apothegm,     or    Apoph- 
thegm, 300. 
Argumentative,  300. 

"    Writing,  example  of,  in  a  de- 
fence of  Literary  Studies 
in  Men  of  Business,  223. 
Asterisk,  28  and  32. 

Ballad,  287. 

Barbarism,  92. 

Bathos,  notes,  64  and  303. 

Beauty  in  Writing,  104. 

Bernard  De  Rohan,   Description  of 

173. 
Bianca  Capello,  322. 
Biographical  Sketch,  322. 
Black  Eyes  and  Blue,  287. 
Blank  Verse,  241. 
Bombast,  notes,  64  and  303. 
Books,  Technical  Terms  relating  to, 

313. 
"    in  Folio,  Quarto,  Octavo,  Du 
odecimo,  &c.,  313. 
Bookbinders'  marks  for  folding,  &c. 

313. 
Bourgeois  J  312. 
Boutes,  Rimes,  note,  242L 
Bov/doin   Prize   Dissertation  on  th* 

Literary  Character  of  Dr.  Samne. 

Johnson,  381. 
Brace,  28  and  31. 
Brackets,  27  and  30. 
Breve,  28  and  30. 
Brevier,  312. 
Bucolics,  289. 
Burlesque,  297. 

"    Happy  instances  of,  in  severa 
styles,  note,  297. 
Burletta,  297. 
Butterflv  and  Humming  Bird,  Th«^ 

an  Allegory,  135. 

Caesura,  proper  position  of,  234. 

Cantata,  287. 

Canzonet,  287. 

Capital  Letters,  Rules  for  the  Use  of, 

Cards  —  Ceremonious,  Business,  and 
Wedding,— forms  of,  195,  196,197 
Caret,  28  and  32. 


AIDS    10    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


iA 


Catachresis,  69. 

"    literal  meaning  of,  note,  70. 
"    the  foundation  of  many  wit- 
ticisms, Twte,  70. 
Catch-word,  313, 
Cedilla,  or  Cerilla,  28  and  31. 
Charade,  139  and  288. 
Chestei-field,  Lord,  his  disapprobation 

of  wafers,  195. 
Choice  of  Texts,  390. 
Circumlocution,  63. 
Clauses,  17. 

"    neuter,  active  transitive,  ac- 
tive intransitive,  passive, 
relative,  and  subjunctive, 
18. 
Claamess,  94. 
OUmax,  147. 

"    the  language  of  passion,  note, 

148. 
"    and  Antithesis  united,  note, 

148. 
'*    purpose  of,  note,  148. 
College  Exercises,  Specimens  of,  324. 
"    Poem,  Example  of  a,  on  the 
Pleasures  and  Pains  of  the 
Student,  336. 
Colloquy,  324. 

"    Example  of  a,  327. 
"    Subjects  for,  408. 
Colon,  its  meaning  and  use,  27  and 

29. 
Column,  313. 
Comedy,  296. 
Comma,  its  meaning  and  use,  27  and 

29. 
Common  Metre,  n^te,  230. 
Composition,  Introduction  and  300. 
*'    Narrative,  descriptive,  didac- 
tic, persuasive,    pathetic, 
ai'gumentative,  300. 
"    Directions  for  revising,  &c., 

303. 
"    Rules  for  the  mechanical  ex- 
ecution of,  304. 
"     Correction  of  a,  An  Example 

of,  307  and  308. 
«    of  Words,  34. 
«    of  a  Sermon,  390. 
Oomparison,  122. 

"    how  difl'ering  from  Simile  and 

from  Metaphor,  notes,  122. 

"    under  what  heads  it  may  be 

reduced,  123. 
"    the  foundation  of,  123. 
"    when  not  to  be  used,  123. 
*•    Rules  relating  to,  123. 
Compound  Sentences,  formation  of 
from  Simple  ones,  58. 

36 


Compound  "Words,  35. 
Conclusion,  209. 
Conference,  324. 

"    Subjects  for,  40 
Confirmation,  209. 
Conjunction,  aiid  how  av./«, .  t'    wite 

Connected  Narrative  from  Scattered 

Facts,  157. 
Construction  of  Sentences,  92. 
Conundrums,  note,  140. 
Conversation,  or  Simple  Dialogue,  7. 
Conversion  of  Poetry  into  Prose,  76. 
Correction  of  the  Press,  marks  used 

by  printers  in,  310  and  311. 
Couplet,  or  Distich,  230. 
Critical  Notice,  317. 

"    Discussion,  Subjects  for,  410. 
Criticism,  318. 
Crotchets,  27  and  30. 
Cut,    representing    the    manner    in 

which  a  letter  should  be  folded, 


Dactyle,  231. 

Dactylic  Verse,  is  properly  defective 

Anapsestic,  note,  233. 
Dash,  28  and  30. 
Defence  of  Literary  Studies  in  Men 

of  Business,  223. 
Definition,  105. 
Deliberative  Discussion,  350. 

"    Subjects  for,  410. 
Derivation  and  Composition  of  "Words, 
34. 
"    Modes  of,  36. 
"    Exercises  in,  39. 
Derivative  "Words,  35. 
Description,  165. 

"    Efiect  of  Figurative  Language 

in,  note,  177. 
"    Classes  of,  166. 
*     Terms  appropriate  for,  166. 
"    Selection   of    Circumstances 

in,  167. 
"    Sir  "Walter  Scott's  accuracy 

in,  note,  167. 
"    of  a  country,  canals,  168. 
''    ofrivers,  168andl70. 

of    climate,    coasts,    forests, 
woods,  houses,  level  coun 
try,  mountains,  169. 
"    of  villages,  170. 
"    of  persons,  of  a  sensible  ob 

ject,  171. 
"    of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  172 
"    of  a  beautiful  woman,  wo^*, 

173. 
»    of  Bernard  De  Rohan,  173. 


422 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


Description  of  a  fine-looking  man, 
note,  174. 
"    of  the  elephant,  175. 
"    of  natural  scenery,  175  and 

176. 
"    Use  of  Epithets  in,  note,  175. 
Descriptive,  Introduction  and  300. 

"    Poetry,  instances  of,  299. 
Dialogue  (simple),  7  and  324. 

"    about  dogs,  12. 
Diction,  Poetic,  77. 
Didactic,  Introduction  and  300. 

"    Poetry,  instances  of,  299. 
Diaeresis,  27,  31,  and  77. 
Diamond  Type,  312. 
Difference,  105. 

Diminution,  or  Liptotes,  note,  142. 
Directions,  Grammatical,  88. 

"    for  the  Division  of  a  Subject, 

215. 
"•    for  acquiring  a  Good  Style, 

302. 
"    for  revising    and    correcting 

Compositions,  303. 
"    in     Letter     Writing.       [See 

Letters.] 
"    for  Superscriptions  and  Forms 
of  Address  to  Persons  of 
every.  Rank,  ?io/e,  190. 
Discussion,  344. 

"    Different  Kinds  of,  as  philos- 
ophical, literary,  political, 
moral,  &c.,  344. 
"    Philosophical,  Example  of,  on 
the  Expediency  of  making 
Authorship  a   Profession, 
345. 
"    a  Literary,  on  "  The  merits  of 
the  Histories  of  Hume  and 
Lingard,"  349. 
♦'    a    Deliberutive,    on    Liberal 
Principles  as  affecting  the 
Strength  of  Government, 
350. 
•'    Subjects  for,  408  and  410. 
Diaputation,  355. 

"    Philosophical  and    Forensic, 

355. 
'•  Forensic,  Example  of,  on  the 
question,  ''  Whetlier  Pop- 
ular Superstitions,  or  En 
lighted  Opinion,  be  most 
favoniblo  to  the  growth  of 
Poetical  Literature,"  355. 
'*  Philosophical,  Example  of  a, 
on  the  question, "  Whether 
Intellectual  Improvement 
be  favorable  to  tiie  produc- 
tions of  the  Itingination," 
369. 


Disquisition,  341. 

"    how  it  differs  from  a  Disssr 

tation,  341. 
"    Ethical,    political,    scientific, 

and  literary,  342, 
"    Ethical,  Example  of,  on  "  The 
strict  application  of  Moral 
Rules    to    the    Policy  of 
States,"  342. 
Dissertation,  338. 

"    Example  of,  on  "  The  Causes 
which,    independently  of 
their  Merit,  nave  contrib 
uted  to  elevate  the  Ancient 
Classics,"  381. 
"    Bowdoin  Prize,  on  the   Life 
and  Character  of  Dr.  John 
son,  381. 
"    Subjects  for,  414. 
Distich,  or  Couplet,  230. 
Distinction,  105. 
Divisions  of  a  Subject,  215. 

"    of  a  Sermon,  392. 
Double  Pica,  note,  312. 
Drama,  296. 

"    Rules  for  the  construction  oi 
the,  296. 
Dramatic  Composition,  kinds  of,  2% 
Dramatic  Poetry,  294. 
Duet,  note,  287. 
Duodecimo,  313. 

Echo  Verpfis,  243. 
Eclogue,  290. 

"    how  it  differs  from  Idyl,  290. 
Ellipsis,  28,  30,  77. 
Elegiac  Poetry,  269. 
Elegy,  Gray's,  written  in  a  Country 

Church-yard,  291. 
Elision,  76. 
Emblem,  «of«,  122. 

"     Foundation    of    Simile    and 
Comparison,  7iote,  123. 
Empire  of  Poetry,  by  Fontenelle,  133. 
English  Oration,  36*i. 

"    on  Public  Station,  362. 

"    "The   Utilitarian   System;' 

♦'  Cui  Bono  "  367. 
"    "  Public  Opinion,"  371. 
"    Valedictory,  The  Spirit  that 
sliouid  accompany  our  Re 
publican  Institutions,  374. 
English  Primer,  note,  312. 
English  Verse,  specimens  of  different 
kinds  of,  235. 
"    how  divided,  231. 
"    how  they  termiur.te,  232. 
English,  Language  of  the  61. 
Enallage,  77. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


423 


Lnigma,  or  Riddle,  131. 

"    of  the  Sphinx,  note,  139. 
"    of  the  letters  H,  M,  and  E, 
138,  and  Tiote,  139. 
Epic,  295. 

"    Poetry  294. 
"    Poem,  Examples  of,  295. 
Epicurean,      by      Thomas     Moore, 

noticed,  note,  230  and  295. 
Epigram,  288. 

"    its  characteristic  is  precise- 
ness,  288. 
Epilogue,  296. 
Episode,  295. 
Epistolary  Correspondence,  or  Letter 

Writing,  183. 
Epitaph,  290. 

"    Remarks  on,  note,  290. 
Epithalamium,  289. 
Epithets,  282. 

"    Kinds  of,  283. 
"     Simple  and  Compound,  283. 
"    Judicious  Application  of,    a 
great  beauty   in    Poetry, 

Epode,  286. 

Epopea,  or  Epopoeia,  296. 

Esquire,  title  oi,  when  to  be  applied, 

191. 
I  5say,  329. 

"    Examples  of  an,  on  "  Literat- 
ure," 331. 
"    on  "  The  Pleasures  derived 
from  the  Fine  Arts  by  the 
Artist  and  the    Common 
Spectator,"  333. 
"    on  "  The  Sentiment  of  Loy- 
alty," 334. 
"    filled  out  from  heads,  catiines, 
or  abstracts,  Cid.' 
Etymological  Figures,  111. 
Euphemism,  63. 
Euphonic  Letters,  35. 
Events,  Objects  and,  5. 
Evening,  Invitation  for.  Form  of,  193. 
Example,  209. 
Exclamation,  as  a  point,  28  and  29. 

*'     as  a  rhetorical  figiire,  145. 
Exercises,  College,  Specimens  of,  324. 
Exordium,  362. 
Expansion  of  an  Idea,  21. 
Expansion  of  Narrative  Writing,  note. 

159. 
Explanations  and  Paraphrase,  153. 
Expletives,,  cautions  against  use  of, 

note,  241, 
Expression,  Variety  of,  73. 
Expressions,  Selection  of,  92. 
Fable  and  Apologue,  136. 


Fable  and  Apologue,  how  they  difior 

from  a  Tale,  136. 
Farce,  296, 

Faults  destructive  of  clearness,  94. 
Feet,  Poetical,  231. 

"    Kinds  of,  231. 

"    what  kinds  most  frequenth 
used,  231. 

"     Secondary,  231. 
Figurative  Language,  HI  and  283. 

"    and  Plam,  diflference  between. 
113. 

"     translation  of  Plain  into,  11 5 
Figure,  Definition  of  a.  111. 

"    Etymological,  Syntactical  and 
Rhetorical,  111. 
Figures,  as  enumerated  by  Holmes, 
note,  111. 

"    Use  of,  112. 

"    Faults  of,  note,  112. 
Folding  of  a  Letter,  188  and  189. 

"    ofNotes,  &c.,  194. 
Folio,  313. 
Forensic  Disputation,  355. 

"    Example  of  a,  355. 

"     Subjects  for,  409. 
Form  of  a  Letter,  186. 
Formal  Letter,  Example  of  a,  188. 
Formation  of  Compound   Sentences 

from  Simple  ones,  58. 
Forms  for  Cards,  &c.,  195. 

Generalization  of  a  Subject,  227 

Genus,  105. 

Ginevra,  81  and  84. 

Governor  of  a  State,  Title  by  whicn 

he  is  to  be  addressed,  190. 
Grammatical  Propriety,  88. 
Great  Primer,  Tiote,  312. 

Harmony,  94  and  99. 
»    Rules  of,  100. 
"    Higher  Kind  of,  101. 
"    of  a  Verse,  how  destroyed, 
238. 
Heads  of  Departments,  their  Titles, 
190. 
"    or  Divisions,  of  a  Subject,  in 
argumentative  discussions, 
in  persuasive,  descriptive, 
narrative,     and     didactic 
writing,  216. 
Hemistich,  230. 
Heroic  Measure,  note,  232. 

*'    the    principal  Metre    of  the 
English    Language,    nUi^ 
240. 
Heroic  Verse,  296. 
Heroics,  Mock,  297. 


424 


AIDS   TO   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


Higher  Species  of  Poetry,  294. 

Honorable,  Title  of,  when  to  be  ap- 
pUed,  190  and  191. 

Humming  Bird  and  Butterfly,  Alle- 
gory of,  135. 

Hyperbaton,  77. 

Hyperbole,  .41. 

"    Reverse  of  note^  142. 
"    Purpose  of,  note^  148. 

Hymns,  286. 

Hypermeter,  232. 

Hyphen,  28  and  30. 

Iambic  Verse,  or  Measure,  231. 
"    of  what  it  consists,  232. 
"    how  accented,  232. 
Iambus,  231. 
Idyl,  or  IdyUium,  290. 
Illustration  of  a  Subject,  219. 
Impromptu,  289. 
Impropnety,  92. 

Improprieties,  Colloquial,  note^  54. 
Independence,    different    senses    in 

which  it  is  used,  108. 
Index,  420. 

Indian    Reasoning,    remarkable    in- 
stance of,  iiote^  220. 
Inauiry,  political,  philosophical,  &c., 

Subject  for,  410. 
Interrogation  (as  a  point),  28  and  29. 
"    (as  a  rhetorical  figure),  144. 
Invitation,  notes  of,  192. 

"    forms  of,  193. 
Inversion  and  Transposition,  Methods 

of,  50. 
Irony,  150. 

'*    proper  subjects  of,  150. 
It,  the    neuter   pronoun,    useful    in 
altering  tlie  arrangement  of  a  sen- 
tence, note^  56. 
Italic  Words  in  Old  and  New  Testa^ 

ment,  313. 
Ivanhoe,  Extract  from,  note^  62. 

Jablonski's  Welcome  of  Stanislaus, 

notoy  67. 
Jardine's  Remarks  on  the  manBge- 
roent  of  a  Subject,  204. 
"    Remarks  on  the  Fourth  Order 
of  Themes,  219. 
Jests  and  Jokes,  vote^  140. 

"    diffcronoo  between,  iiote^  140. 
Jud^s,  Titles  of,  190. 
JoBtico,  Poetical,  206. 

King,  how  to  be  addressed,  note^  190. 
Kiiight,  The,  and  the  Lady,  275. 

Lampoons,  300. 


Language,  English,  of  the,  61. 

"    now  rendered  copious  and  ex 
prcssivei35. 
Legend  of  Modena,  83. 
Letter  Writing,  or  Epistolary  Corres 
pondence,  Itfl, 
"    with  explanation  of  its  parts 

187. 
"    Directions  in  Writing,  187. 
"    in  what  person  to  be  written 

184. 
"    Date,  Sij^ature,  and  Super 

scription  of,  185. 
"    the  particulars  it  should  era 

brace,'  185. 
"    Date  of,  where  to  be  written 

185. 
"    Complimentary  Address,  body 
or   the    Letter,    Style   or 
Complimentary    Closing, 
Signature,  Title,  &c.,  185. 
"    Forms  of  a,  186. 
"     Directions  for  Addressing  to 
Persons    of  every  Rank, 
note,  190. 
"    Directions  for  Sealing.  195. 
"    of  Introduction,  198. 
"    of  Condolence,  199. 
Letters,  Euphonic,  35. 
"    Radical,  35. 

"    frequency  of  their  recurrence, 
312. 
Licenses,  Poetical,  76. 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  a  State,  his 

Title,  190. 
Lines  addressed  to  Lady  BjTon,  285. 
Liptotes,  or  Diminution,  twte,  142. 
List  of  Works  consulted  in  the  pre 

paration  of  this  Volume,  419 
Literature,  Essay  on,  331. 
Logogriph,  288. 
Long  Metre,  note,  230. 

"    Primer,  312. 
Lord  Chesterfield,  his  disapproboti/w 

of  wafers,  note,  195. 
Lyric  Poetry,  284. 

Machinery  of  a  Poem,  295. 

Madrigal,  288. 

Marks  used  bv  Printers  in  Correo 

tions  of  the  Press,  310  and  311. 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,   Description 

of,  172. 
Massachusetts,  Titles  recoguired  bv 

Law  in,  tiote,  190. 
Maxim,  note,  154. 
Mayor,  the  Title  of  a,  190. 
Measure,  Heroic,  note,  232. 
Megan,  Story  of,  100. 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 


425 


Members  of  a  House  of  Represent- 
atives, and  of  a  Board  of  Aldermen, 
how  to  be  addressed,  190. 

Metaphors,  meaning  of,  112  and  113, 
and  note,  113. 
»    Rules  of,  117. 

Metre,  230. 

"    Long,   Common,   Short,   and 
Pai  ticular,  note,  230. 

Methods  of  Inversion  and  Transpo- 
sition, 50. 

Minion,  312. 

Mock  Heroics,  297. 

Modena,  Legend  of,  83. 

Monologue,  289. 

Music  of  a  Sentence,  and  on  what  it 
depends,  101. 

Musical  Construction,  101 . 

Names,  Exercise  on,  6. 
Narration  Expanded,  159. 

"    and  Description  United,  in  the 
Story  of  the  Son,  178. 
Narrative,  Introduction,  and  300. 

*'     Outlines  in,  155. 

"    Connected,    from    scattered 
facts,  157. 

"     Writing,  plan  in,  note,  159. 
Expansion  of,  note,  159. 

Nelson,  Admiral,  Lord,  Anecdote  of, 
note,  195. 

Nowton,  Sir  Isaac,  his  use  of  Ana- 
grams, note,  87. 

Nobility,  The,  how  to  be  addressed, 
note,  191. 

Nonpareil,  312. 

Nonsense  Verses,  238. 

Notes  of  Invitation,  192. 

"    Forms  of,  with  the  Reply,  193. 

Notice,  Critical,  317. 
«     Obituary,  313. 

Novels,  295. 

Obituary  Notice,  314. 
Obelisk,  28  and  32. 

"    Double,  28  and  32. 
Objects,  and  their  Parts,  1. 

"    their  Qualities  and  Uses,  2. 

"    their  Parts,  Qualities,  Uses, 
and  Appendages,  3. 

"    and  Events,  5. 
ODject  of  a  Verb,  how  expressed,  19. 
Objective  Nouns,  with  Preposition  of, 

when  inelegant,  note,  53. 
Obsolete  Words,  note,  77. 
Octavo.  313. 
Octodecimo,  313. 
Ode,  286. 

36* 


Ode,  The  Greek,  286. 

Ofl&cial  Documents,  how  folded,  note, 

188. 
Onomatopoeia,  or  Onomatopy,  104. 

"    Instances  of,  235. 
Oration,  361. 

"    its  meaning,  361. 
"    the  Parts  of  an,  362. 
"    EngUsh,    on    "  Public     Sta- 
tion," 362. 
"    on    "The     Utilitarian    Sys 
tem;"  "  Cui  Bono,"  367. 
"    Public  Opinion,  371. 
"    Valedictory,  <'  The  Spirit  that 
should     accompany     our 
Republican    Institutions," 
374. 
"    Latin,  Valedictory,  379. 
"     Subjects  for,  416. 
Outlines  in  Narrative,  155. 

Paeans,  286. 
Parable,  136. 
Paragoge,  77. 
Parallel,  28,  32,  and  128. 

"    between  Pope  and  Dryden. 

128. 
"    between  Jay  and  Hamilton 
130. 
Paragraph,  28  and  32. 
Paranomasia,  7iote,  139  and  140. 
Paraphrase,  or  Explanation,  153. 
Parody  and  Parodies,  297. 
Particulur  Metre,  note,  230. 
Pasquinade,  300. 
Pastoral  Poetry,  289. 
Pastorals,  289. 

Pathetic,  Introduction  and  300. 
Patience,  An  Allegory,  132. 
Pearl,  (type),  312, 
Peculiarities  and  Improprieties,  note, 

54. 
Period,  its  meaning  and  use,  note,  27. 

and  29. 
Periphrase  or  Periphrasis,  63. 

"    useful  to  avoid  repetition  of 

the  same  word,  64. 
"    apt  to  run  into  bombast,  64. 
Perspicuity,  92. 

Persuasive,  Introduction  and  300. 
Philosophical   Discussion,    Subjects 

for,  410. 
Phrases,  92. 

"    clauses,  &c.,  17. 
'*    and   clauses,  diflference   b^ 
tween,  18. 
Pica,  312. 

"    small,  double,  two  line,  thro 
line  &c.,  note,  .312. 


#26 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


Pickbourue,  on  the  use  of  the  parti- 
ciple, note,  89. 
Plain  Language  and  Figurative,  dif- 
ference between,  113. 
"    Translation  of  into  Figura- 
tive, 115. 
Plan  of  a  Composition,  218. 
Pleonasm,  71  and  77. 
Poem,  College,  Example  of,  on  the 
pleasures  and  pains  of  the  Stu- 
dent, 336. 
"    Machinery  of,  29/). 
'*     Subjects  for,  414. 
Poetical  Justice,  296. 
«    Feet,  231. 
"    "    kinds  of,  231. 
"    "    what  kinds  most  frequent- 
ly used,  231. 
Poetry,  sentimental,  iiote,  299. 
"    instances  of,  7iote,  299. 
"    Lyric,  2&4. 

"    Pastoral  and  Elegiac,  2S9. 
"    higher  species  of,  294. 
'*    Epic  and  Dramatic,  294. 
"    Didactic  and  Descriptive,  294. 
"    Empire  of,  an  Allegory,   by 

Fontenelle,  133. 
**    and  Versification,  230. 

deals  largelv  in  figurative  lan- 
guage, 230. 
"    True,  what  it  consists  in,  jwte, 
230. 
Poetic  diction,  77. 

"    licenses,  76. 
Political  Discussion,  Subjects  for,  410. 
Possessive    nouns,  when    inelegant, 

note.  53. 
Precision,  92  and  93. 

"    how  promoted,  note,  93. 
**    opposed    to    Tautology    and 
Pleonasm,  note,  93. 
Prefix,  35. 

Prefixes,  Alphabetical  synopsis  of,  36. 
Prepositions,  Mhut  ones  to  be  used 

with  certain  words,  vote,  53. 
President  of  the  United  States,  the 
title  by  which  he  is  to  be  address- 
ed, 190. 
Primer,  Long,  312. 
Primitive  words,  34. 
Printers'  marks  for  the  correction  of 

the  press,  310  and  311. 
Privy    Counsellors,   how   addressed, 

v^te,  191. 
Prologue,  296. 

Proposition  or  narrative,  208. 
Proprietv,  92  anil  93. 

"    Grammatical,  S8. 
Prosopopoeia,  or  Personification,  118. 


Prosopopoeia,  its  use  to  poeticul  wri 
ters,  118. 

"    different  degrees  of,  119. 
"    beautiful  instances  of,  from 
Thomson's    Seasons,   note, 
118,  and  Milton's  Paradise 
Lost,  7wte,  120. 
"    how  the  genders  should  be 
applied,  7U)te,  121. 
Proven9al  or  Provincial  dialect,  29r> 
Prosthesis  77. 
Proverb,  7iote,  154. 
Psalms,  286. 
Pun,  note,  139. 

"    sometimes  appears  as  an  ep 
igrara,  rwte,  140. 
Punctuation,  27. 

"    importance  of,  note,  27. 
"    Rules  of,  28. 
"    Exercises  in,  32. 
Purity,  92. 
Pyrrhic,.231. 

Quantity  of  a  syllable,  231. 
Quartette,  note,' 281. 
Quarto,  313. 
Quatrains,  287. 
Quotation,  209. 

"    marks  of,  27  and  30. 

Radical  letters,  35. 
Reason  or  Argument,  209. 
Reasoning  powers  of  the  Lidians,  rw 

markable  instance  of,  note,  2?0 
Rebus,  note,  139. 
Redundancy,  71. 
Refutation  of  an  obiection,  225. 
Regular  subjects,  200. 
Remarks  and  Analysis  on  a  sped 
men  of  argumentative  writing,  225 
Repetition,  144. 
Representatives  of  the  United  States, 

their  titles,  190. 
Revolutionary  Story,  162. 
Rhetorical  figures.  111. 
Rhyme,  ^41. 

"    useful  as  an  aid  to  memoiy, 

152. 
"    where  it  must  always  com 

mence,  232  and  241. 
"    Rules  of,  241. 
"    not  essential  in  poetry,  noie^ 

241. 
"    kinds  of,  242. 
Rnymes,  Vocabulary  of,  243. 
•'    directions  for  finding,  243 
•*    Rules  of,  note,  244. 
"     suggestion   to  students   wilB 
regard  to,  274. 


klDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


427 


Rl  ymes,  sin  ^ular  kinds  of,  275. 
Rj  idle  or  Enigma,  138. 

■    '*    of  the  Sphinx,  note,  139. 
R  -mance,  295. 
R  ndeau,  rondo,  roundo,  roundel,  or 

roundelay,  288. 
i  wt  of  a  word,  35. 
^  des  of  Propriety,  92. 

"     Unity,  95. 

"    Strength,  97. 

"    Harmony,  100  a-d  101. 

"    Metaphors,  117. 

"     Comparisons,  123. 

"    Antithesis,  126. 

"    for  the  mechanical  execution 
of  written  exercises,  304. 

"     General,  of  a  Sermon,  391. 
iunning  title,  313. 

Sarcasm,  150. 

Satires,  300. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  his  accuracy  m 

description,  note,  167. 
Secondary  feet,  231. 
Section,  28  and  32. 
Selection  of  words  and  expressions, 

92. 
Semicolon,  its  meaning  and  use,  27 

and  28. 
Sentences,  17. 

»    Parts  of,  18. 

"    Kinds  of,  19. 

"     Simple  and  Compound,  19. 

"    Parts  and  Adjuncts  of,  22. 

'*     Construction  of,  93. 

"    Essential   properties  of  per- 
fect, 94. 

"    Unity  of,  95. 

"    What  kind  should  not  succeed 
one  another,  101. 
Banators,  their  titles,  190. 
Sentimental  Poetry,  note,  299. 

"    instances  of,  7wte,  299. 
Sermon,  Composition  of  a,  390. 

"     General  Rules  of  a,  391. 

"    of  connexion  of  a,  391. 

"    Divisions  of  a,  392. 

♦'    Discussion  in  a,  393. 

"    Explication  of  terms  in  a,  393. 

"    Explication  in  a,  of  two  sorts, 
393. 

"     Skeletons  of  a,  396  and  398. 
Shakspeare  as  a  dramatic  writer,  296. 
Sherwood,   Mrs.,   Social  Tales,  Ex- 
tracts from,  205. 
Short  metre,  note,  230. 
Bimile  and  Comparison,  122  and  209. 

"    Distil  ction     between,    note, 
122. 


Simile,  how  it  differs  from  metaphor, 

note,  122. 
Simple  words,  35. 

"     Dialogue  or  Conversation,  /. 
Sketch,  Biographical,  322. 
Small  Pica,  312. 
Solecism,  92. 
Sonnet,  287. 

"    to  one  beloved,  287. 
Sound  adapted  to  the  sense,  instan- 
ces of,  ( See  Onomatopceia),  102  and 
104. 
Specimens  of  different  kinds  of  Eng- 
lish verse,  235. 
Spectator,  No.  411,  Dr.  Blair's  Criti 

cism  of,  318. 
Speech,  361. 
Spondee,  231. 

Stanza  and  Stave,  note,  230. 
Story  of  Megan,  160. 
Strength,  94  and  97. 
"    Rules  of,  97. 
Strophe,  286. 
Style,  92  and  300. 

"  Different  kinds  of,  as  diffuse, 
conci.se,  nervous,  feeble, 
dry,  plain,  neat,  elegant 
flowery  or  florid,  simple, 
affected,  vehement,  barren, 
luxuriant,  forcible,  elevat- 
ed, dignified,  idiomatic,  ea- 
sy, animated,  &c.,  301.  La- 
conic, 7iote,  301. 
"    Directions  for  forming  a  good, 

302. 
"    of  Simple  Narration,  75. 
"    of  Passionate    Exclamation 

75. 
"    loose,  source  of,  93. 
Subject  of  a  verb,  how  expressed,  19 
"    Illustration  of  a,  219. 
"    Treatment  of  a,  222. 
"     Generalization  of  a,  227. 
Subjects    and    methods   of  treating 
them,  200. 
"    for  Compositions  of  aU  sorts, 

399. 
"    for  Conferences,  405. 
"     Colloquys  or  colloquial  dis 

cussions,  408. 
"    Dissertations,  414. 
"  Forensic     and     Philosophical 

Disputations,  409. 
"    Deliberative,  Political,  Criti- 
cal, Philosophical,  and  Lit- 
erary Discussions.  Disqui 
sitions,  Inquiries,  &c.,  410. 
*'    for  Orations,  Essays,  &c.,  416 
«     Poems,  414. 


128 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


Suggestions  to  teachers  with  regard 
to  the  -written  exercises  of  stu- 
dents, 304. 

Superscription  of  a  Letter,  titles 
proper  for,  190. 

Synseresis,  77. 

Syncategorematica,  393. 

Synonymes,  40. 

Synonymous  words,  93. 

Syntactical  figures,  111. 

Tale,  295. 

Tautology,  69. 

Teachers,  suggestions  to,  with  regard 

to  written  exercises,  304.  • 
Technical  terms,  relating  to  books, 

313. 
Terms  suitable  for  Descriptions,  166. 
Terzines,  287. 

Testimony  or  Quotation,  209. 
Texts,  choice  of,  390. 
Theme,  Example  of  a  College,  324. 
Themes.  203. 

**    how  divided,  203. 

"    Simple,  203. 

"    Complex,  204. 

"    Proof  of,  208. 

"    Proposition  of,  208. 
Thesis,  329. 
Title,  Running,  313. 

"    Page,  313. 
Tmesis,  77. 
Tract,  329. 
Tragedy,  296. 

Translation  of  plain  into  figurative 
language,  115. 

*'    or  conversion  of  poetry  into 
prose,  76. 
Transposition  and  Inversion,  methods 

of,  50. 
Travesties,  297. 
Treatise,  329. 

Treatment  of  a  subject,  200. 
Tribrach,  231. 
Trio,  note,  287. 
Trochee,  231. 
Trochaic  verse,  231. 

"    how  accented,  231. 

"    how  it  terminates,  note.  233. 
Trope,  meaning  of,  112  and  113. 
Tropes,  faults  of.Tiote,  HI. 
Troubadours,  295. 

"    Tides  of,  295. 
Tutor  and  his  Pupils,  A  Dialogue,  8. 
Types,  names  of  different  sizes  of, 
312. 

Untties,  the  three,  as  they  are  called, 
296. 


Unity,  94  and  95. 

"    how  sometimes  preserved  9»' 
"    of  action,  what  it  requlrer 

296. 
"    of  time  and  place,  296. 

Variety  of  expression,  73. 
Verbosity,  71. 
Versification,  230. 

"    first  exercise  in,  238. 
Verse,  230,  and  twte,  230. 

"    Alexandrine,  note,  232. 
"    without  rhyme,  241. 
"    Onomatopoeia,  a  great  beaut  \ 
in,  235. 
Verses,  English,  how  divided,  231. 
"    how  they  terminate,  232. 
"    specimens  of  difierent  kinds 

of,  235. 
"    of  what  kinds  of  feet  they 

may  be  composed,  23\. 
»    Iambic,  231. 
"    "    how  accented,  232. 
"    Trochaic,  231. 
"    '•    how  accented,  232. 
"    Anapaestic,  231. 
'*    "    ot  what  they  consist,  233 
"    Dactylic,  231. 
"    "    are  properly  defective  An 

apeestic,  232. 
"    pure  Iambic,  what  they  con- 
tain, 232. 
"    Iambic,  forms  of,  232. 
*•    in  which  the  secondary  feet 
are  admitted  to  give  varie 
ty,  237. 
"    Nonsense,  238. 
"    Echo,  243. 

"    specimens  of  various  kinds 
of,  235. 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States, 
the  title  by  which  he  is  to  be  ad 
dressed,  190. 
Vignette,  313. 
Vision,  146. 

Vivacitv  of  style,  how  sometimes  at 
tainaole,  note,  58. 

Wafers,  195. 

Walker's  Directions  for  the  divisioM 

of  a  subject,  200. 

"    Directions  for  Themes,  208. 
"    Rules  Versified,  201  and  209. 
Waverley,  Author  of,  his  misuse  of 

the  tenses,  89. 
Webster,   Hon    Daniel,   remarkable 

for  the  Saxon  force  and  purity  of 

his  language,  note,  62 


AIDS    TO    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


429 


Winged  "Worshippers,  the,  284. 
Words,  15  and  92. 

"    as  affected  by  accent,  16. 
"    to  be  arranged  in  a  sentence, 

24. 
**    Derivation  and  Composition 

of,  34. 
**    Primitive  and  Derivative,  34. 
*♦    Simple  and  Compound,  35. 
"    Reducible  to  groups  or  fami- 
lies, 35. 
"<    Selection  of,  92 


Words,  Similar  in  sound,  and  differ- 
ent in  s.pelling  and  signifi 
cation,  note,  49. 
"    "What  kinds  of  most  pleasing 

to  the  ear,  101. 
"     Sounds  of,  for  what  they  may 
be  employed  to  represent, 
102. 
"    when  used  literally  and  when 
figuratively, 
"Works  consulted  in  the  preparatinn 
of  this  volume,  419. 


BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES, 

AT  GREATLY  REDUCED  PRICES, 

PUBLISHED    BY 

«ARPER  6l   brothers,  NEW  YORK- 


»/v^A^^•■/^/^/^<^>^>■ 


Abbott's  Illustrated  Histories. 

Suitable  for  Reading  Books  in  Schools.  Illuminated  Titl#»' 
pages  and  numerous  Engravings.  16mo,  Muslin,  60  cent* 
each;  Muslin,  gilt  edges,  75  cents  each. 

Cleopatra.— Josephine. — Madame  Roland. — Xerxes. — Cyrus, 
— Darius. — Alexander. — Hannibal. — Julius  Caesar. — ^Alfred. — 
William  the  Conqueror. — Queen  Elizabeth. — Mary  Queen  of 
Scots. — Charles  I. — Charles  II. — Maria  Antoinette. — Romulus. 
— ^Py  rrhus.  > — Nero. 

Abercrombie  on  the  Intellectnal  Powers. 

Essay  on  the  Intellectual  Powers.  Inquiries  concerning  the 
Intellectual  Powers  and  the  Investigation  of  Truth.  With 
Questions.     18mo,  Muslin,  45  cents;  Half  Bound,  50  cents. 

ALberorombie  on  the  Moral  Feelings. 

The  Philosophy  of  the  Moral  Feelings.  With  Questions, 
18mo,  Muslin,  40  cents;  Half  Bound,  60  cents. 

^son's  Essay  on  Taste. 

Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Principles  of  Taste.  With  Correc- 
tions and  Improvements,  by  Abraham  Mills.  12mo.  Muslin, 
75  cents. 

Andrews's  Latin-English  Lexicon. 

Founded  on  the  larger  German-Latin  Lexicon  of  Dr.  Willlam 
Freund.  With  Additions  and  Corrections  from  the  Leaicona 
of  Gesner,  Facciolati,  Scheller,  Georges,  <&♦  Royal  8vo, 
Sheep,  $5  00. 

Anthon's  Classical  Dictionary. 

Containing  an  Account  of  the  Principal  Proper  Names  mefv 
tioned  in  Ancient  Authors,  and  intended  to  elucidate  all  tlia 
important  Points  connected  with  the  Geography,  History,  Bi- 
ography, Mythology,  and  Fine  Arts  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
together  with  an  Account  of  the  Coins,  Weights,  and  Measures^ 
of  the  Ancients,  with  Tabular  Values  of  the  same.  Royal  8vo 
Sheep  extra,  |4  00. 

/knthon's  Latin-English  Dictionary. 

A  Latin-Enghsh  and  English-Latin  Dictionary,  for  the  use  of 
Schools.  Chiefly  from  the  Lexicons  of  Freund,  Georges,  and 
*5:alt8chmidt.     Small  4to,  Sheep,  $-2  00. 


,«i  BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AWD  CULLEGKa.         -   • 

Anthon's  Classical  Series. 

atin  Lessons.     Latin  Grammar,  Part  I.     Containing  the  most  m 
poitant  Parts  of  the  Grammar  of  the  T^atin  Language,  togethei 
with  appropriate  Exercises  in  the  Translating  and  Writing  ol 
Latin.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

r^itin  Prose  Composition.  Latin  Grammar,  Part  IL  An  Introduc- 
tion to  Latm  Prose  Composition,  with  a  complete  Course  of 
Exercises,  illustrative  of  all  the  important  Principles  of  Latif 
Syntax.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

\  Key  to  the  Above  is  published,  which  may  be  obtained  by 
Teachers.     12mo,  Half  Sheep,  50  cents. 

Zampt's  Latin  Grammar.  From  the  ninth  Edition  of  the  Original, 
adapted  to  the  use  of  English  Students.  By  Leoniiaki> 
SciiMiTZ,  Ph.D.  Corrected  and  enlarged.  12mo,  Sheep  extra, 
75  cents. 

An  Abridgment  of  the  Above.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  60  cents. 

Latin  Prosody  and  Metre.  From  the  best  Authorities,  Ancient  and 
Modern.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

Latin  Versification.  In  a  Series  of  Progressive  Exercises,  including 
Specimens  of  Translation  from  English  and  German  Poetry 
into  Latin  Verse.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  76  cents. 

A  Key  to  the  Above  is  published,  which  may  be  obtained  hy 
Teachers.     12mo,  Kaif  Sheep,  50  cents. 

Cfflsar's  Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  War,  and  the  First  Book  of  th« 
Greek  Paraphrase ;  with  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Ex-plana 
torv,  Plans  of  Battles,  Sieges,  <fec.,  and  Historical,  Geograph 
ical,  and  Archajological  Indexes.  Map,  Portrait,  <tc.  12mo 
Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

le  JEneid  of  Virgil.  With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explana 
tory,  a  Metrical  Claris,  and  an  Historical,  Geographical,  and 
Mythological  Index.  Portrait  and  many  Illustrations.  12mo 
Sheep  extra,  $i  25. 

I 
Eclogues  and  Georgics  of  Virgil.     With  English  Notes,  Critical  ani 
Explanatory.     12nio,  Sheep  extra,  f  1  26. 

lallust's  Jugurthine  War  and  Conspiracy  of  Catiline.  With  an  En 
ffhsh  Commentary,  and  Geographical  and  Historical  Indexes 
New  Edition,  corrected  and  enlarged.  Portrait  12rao  Sheei 
extra,  75  cents.  '         ' 

ITiO  Works  of  Horace.  With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explan* 
\ory.  A  new  Edition,  corrected  and  enlarged,  with  ExoursionB 
relative  to  the  Vines  and  Vineyards  of  the  Ancients ;  a  Life 
of  Horace,  «Jtc.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  25. 

Itar  Select  Orations.  With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Exnliu. 
aiory,  and  Historical  Geographical,  and  Legal  Indexes.  As 
miprov^d  Edition.     Portrait      :%mo,  Sheep  extra  $1  00 


SOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES.  d 

ilnthon's  Classical  Series,  continued. 

Cicero  de  Senectute,  De  Amicitia,  and  Paradoxa,  and  the  Life  of 
Atticus  by  Nepos.  With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explaiv 
atory.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  76  cents. 

Cicero's  Tusculan  Disputations.  With  English  Notes,  Crttical  and 
Explanatory.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

The  Germania  and  Agricola,  and  also  Selections  from  the  Annals 
of  Tacitus.  With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory': 
12mo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

Cornelius  Nepos.  Comelii  Nepotis  Vitae  Imperatorum  Excellentium. 
With  English  Notes,  &c.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

Terence.  Terentii  Comoedise,  with  English  Notes,  Metrical  Tables, 
and  an  Essay  on  the  Scanning  of  Terence,  &c.  12ino,  Sheep 
extra.     {In  press.) 

First  Greek  Lessons.  Containing  the  most  important  Parts  of  the 
Grammar  of  the  Greek  Language,  together  with  appropriate 
Exercises  in  the  Translating  and  Writing  of  Greek ;  for  the  use 
of  Beginners.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  15  cents. 

Creek  Prose  Composition.  Greek  Lessons,  Part  II.  An  Introduc- 
tion to  Greek  Prose  Composition,  with  a  complete  Course  of 
Exercises  illustrative  of  all  the  important  Principles  of  Greek 
Syntax.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  15  cents. 

Grammar  of  the  Greek  Language.  For  the  use  of  Schools  and  CoJ. 
leges.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

I  New  Greek  Grammar.  From  the  German  of  Kiihner,  Matthi«, 
Buttmann,  Rost,  and  Thiersch;  to  which  are  appended  Zie- 
marks  on  the  Pronunciation  of  the  Greek  Language,  and  C/aro- 
nological  Tables  explanatory  of  the  same.    12mo,  Sheep  extra, 

75  cents. 

Sreek  Prosody  and  Metre.  For  the  use  of  Schools  and  Colleges; 
together  with  the  Choral  Scanning  of  the  Prometheus  Vinctus 
of  ^schylus,  and  CEdipus  Tyrannus  of  Sophocles,  to  which  are 
appended  Remarks  on  the  Indo-Germamc  Analogies.  12mo, 
^eep  extra,  75  cents. 

$.  Greek  Reader.  Principally  from  the  German  of  Jacobs.  With 
English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory^  a  Metrical  Index  to 
Homer  and  Anacreon,  and  a  copious  Lexicon.  12mo,  Sheep 
extra,  $1  00. 

Homer.  The  First  Six  Books  of  Homer's  Iliad,  to  which  are  ap- 
pended English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory,  a  Metrical  In- 
dex, and  Homeric  Glossary.  New  and  enlarged  Edition. 
12mo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  26. 

The  Anabasis  of  Xenophon.  With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Ex- 
planatory, a  Map  arranged  according  to  the  latest  and  best  Au- 
thorities, and  a  Plan  of  tibe  Battle  of  Cunaza.  12mo»  Sheep 
$1  26. 


4  BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 

Anthon's  Classical  Series,  continued. 

Xenophon's  Memorabilia  of  Socrates.  From  the  Text  of  Kuhner 
With  Explanatory  jSotes,  <fec.,  by  D.  B.  Hickie,  LL.D.  First 
American  Edition,  corrected  and  enlarged  12mo,  Sheep  ex- 
tra, $1  00. 

Manual  of  Roman  Antiquities.  From  the  most  recent  Gemiau 
Works.  With  a  Description  of  the  City  of  Rome,  <fec.  12mcv 
Sheep  extra,  87  i  cents. 

Jiiaual  of  Greek  JLiteraturei  With  a  Critical  History  of  the  Grwh 
Language.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  GO. 

Manual  of  Greek  Antiquities.  From  the  best  and  most  recent 
Sources.     12mo,  Sheep  'jxtra,  8H  cents. 

Manual  of  Greek  and  Roman  Mythology.     12mo,  Sheep  extra. 

Latin  Syntax.  Latin  Lessons,  Part  II.  Containing  Latin  Syntax. 
with  Reading  Lessons,  and  Exercises  in  double  translation,  on 
the  basis  of  Kiihner's.  12mo,  Sheep  extra.  (Uniform  with 
Latin  Lessons,  Fart  I.) 

Ovid.  Selections  from  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid.  With  English 
Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory.     12mo.     {In  press.) 

Euripides.  The  Hecuba,  Hippolytus,  Medea,  and  Bacchae  of  Eurip. 
ides.  With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory.  12mo. 
{In  press.) 

Juvenal.  The  Satires  of  Juvenal.  With  English  Notes.  CriticaJ 
and  Explanatory.     {In  press.) 

Bigelow  on  the  Useful  Arts, 

considered  in  Connection  with  the  Applications  of  Science 
With  numerous  Engravings.     2  vols.  12mo,  Muslin,  $1  50. 

Boucharlat's  Mechanics. 

An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Mechanics.  Translated  from  the 
French,  with  Additions  and  Emendations,  by  Prof.  Edwabd  R 
CouRTENAY.     Platcs.     Svo,  Sheep  extra,  $2  26. 

Boyd's  Eclectic  Moral  Philosophy ; 

prepared  for  Literary  In^itutions  and  ganeral  Use.  12m« 
Muslin,  75  cents. 

Boyd's  Rhetoric  and  Criticism. 

Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Literary  Criticisnv  with  copioua 
Practical  Exercises  and  Examples.  Including,  also,  a  succinct 
History  of  the  English  Language,  and  of  British  and  American 
Literature,  from  the  earliest  to  the  present  Times.  On  the 
Basis  of  the  recent  Works  of  Alexander  Reid  and  R.  Cunnkll; 
'yith  large  Additions  from  other  Sourcas.  12mo,  Half  BowidL 
0  oenta. 


BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES,  3 

Brande's  Encyclopedia. 

A  Dictionary  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art ;  comprising  the 
History,  Description,  and  Scientific  Principles  of  ever^  Branch 
of  Human  Knowledge ;  with  the  Derivation  and  Definition  of 
all  the  Terms  in  general  use.  Illustrated  by  numerous  En- 
gravings on  Wood.     8vo,  Sheep  extra,  $4  00. 

.iarke  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful. 

Essay  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful.  A  Philosophical  Inquiry 
into  the  Origin  of  our  Ideas  of  the  Sublime  and  the  Beautiful. 
With  an  Introductory  Discourse  concerning  Taste.  Edited  by 
Abraham  Mills.     12mo,  Muslin,  '75  cents. 

Buttmann's  Greek  Grammar. 

A  Greek  Grammar,  for  the  use  of  High  Schools  and  Universi- 
ties. Revised  and  enlarged  by  Alexander  Buttmann.  Trans- 
lated from  the  18th  German  Edition,  by  Edward  Robinson, 
D.D.,  LL.D.     Svo,  Sheep  extra,  $2  00. 

Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric. 

Revised  Edition.     12mo,  Muslin,  $1  25. 

Cicero's  Orator. 

Cicero's  Three  Dialogues  on  the  Orator.  Translated  into  En- 
glish, b}'^  W.  Guthrie.  Revised  and  Corrected,  with  Notes. 
ISmo,  Muslin,  45  cents. 

Clark's  Elements  of  Algebra. 

Embracing,  also,  the  Theory  and  Application  of  Logarithms; 
together  with  an  Appendix,  containing  Infinite  Series,  the 
General  Theory  of  Equations,  and  the  most  approved  Methods 
of  resolving  the  higher  Equations.     Svo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

Comte's  Philosophy  of  Mathematics. 

Translated  from  the  Cours  de  Philosophic  Positive,  by  W.  M. 
Gillespie,  A.M.     Svo,  Muslin,  |1  25. 

Crabb's  Synonyms. 

English  Synonyms  explained.  With  copious  Illustrations  and 
Explanations,  drawn  from  the  best  Writers.  Svo,  Sheep  ex- 
tra, $2  00. 

Dickens's  Child's  History  of  England. 

2  vols,  or  1,  16mo,  Muslin,  |1  00. 

Docharty's  Arithmetic. 

12mo,  Sheep  extra.     {In  press.) 

Pocharty's  Institutes  of  Algebra. 

Being  the  First  Part  of  a  Course  of  Mathematics,  designed  for 
the  use  of  Schools,  Academies,  and  Colleges.  12mo,  Sheep  ex- 
tra, 15  cents. 

Paper's  Text-book  on  Chemistry, 

for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Colleges.  Carefully  revised,  with 
Additions.     With  300  Illustrations.     12mo,  Sheep,  V 5  cents. 


'         BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGIl. 

Draper's  Text-book  on  Natural  Philosophy, 

for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Colleges.  Containing  the  most  re 
cent  Discoveries  and  Facts,  compiled  from  the  best  Authoritiea 
With  nearly  400  Illustrations.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  centa. 

Draper's  Chemical  Organization  of  Plants. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Forces  which  produce  the  Organization  of 
Plants.  With  an  Appendix,  containing  several  Memoirs  on 
Capillary  Attraction,  Electricity,  and  the  Chemical  Action  at 

Light.     Engravings.     4to,  Muslin,  $2  50. 

Duff's  Book-keeping. 

The  North  American  Accountant :  embracing  Single  and  Doubla 
Entry  Book-keeping,  practically  adapted  to  the  Inland  and 
Maritime  Commerce  of  the  United  States.  Exemplifying  all 
Modern  Improvements  in  the  Science,  with  a  new  and  certain 
Method  of  detecting  Errors  and  proving  the  Ledger.  Embrac- 
ing an  improved  Plan  of  Instruction.  Complete  in  Two  Parts. 
8vo,  School  Edition,  Half  Sheep,  75  cents ;  Mercantile  Edition, 
Muslin,  $1  50. 

Findlay's  Classical  Atlas, 

to  Illustrate  Ancient  Geography.  Comprised  in  25  Maps, 
showing  the  various  Divisions  of  the  World  as  known  to  the 
Ancients.  With  an  Index  of  the  Ancient  and  Modem  Namea 
8vo,  Half  Bound,  $3  25. 

Fowler's  English  Language, 

in  its  Elements  and  P'ornis.  With  a  History  of  its  Origin  and 
Development,  and  a  full  Grammar.  Designed  for  use  in  Col- 
leges and  Schools.     8vo,  Muslin,  $1  60;  Sheep  extra,  $1  76. 

Goldsmith's  History  of  Greece. 

Abridged  by  the  Author.  Edited  by  the  Author  of  "  Ameri- 
can Popular  Lessons."     ISmo,  Half  Sheep,  46  cents. 

Goldsmith's  History  of  Rome. 

Abridged  by  the  Author.  Edited  by  0.  W.  Herbert.  I8m% 
Half  Sheep,  45  cents. 

Gray's  and  Adams's  Elements  of  Geology. 

Engravings.      lUnio,  Sheep  extra.  1i)  cents. 

•ray's  Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy. 

Designed  as  a  Text-book  for  Academies,  Iligu  Schools,  and 
Colleges.  Illustrated  by  860  Wood-cuts.  12mo,  Sheep  extra» 
76  cents. 

Griscom's  Animal  Mechanism 

and  Physiology  ;  beinir  id  familiar  Exposition  of  the 

Structure  and  Function  inaan  System.     Designed  for 

Families  and  Schools.     Liii^iiivitigs.     ISma  Muslin,  46 
Half  Sheep.  60  cents. 


BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES-  7 

Hackley's  Algebra. 

A  Treatise  on  Algebra.  8vo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  50.  A  School 
and  College  Edition,  8vo,  Muslin,  $1  00. 

Hackley's  Geometry. 

An  Elementary  Course  of  Geometry,  for  the  use  of  Schools  and 
Colleges.     8"VO,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

Hale's  History  of  the  United  States, 

from  their  first  Settlement  as  Colonies  to  the  Close  of  the  A4 
ministration  of  Mr.  Madison  in  1817.  2  vols.  18rao,  Muslin, 
90  cents. 

Harper's  Statistical  Gazetteer  of  the  World, 

particularly  describing  the  United  States  of  America,  Canada, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia.  By  J.  Calvin  Smith.  IL 
lustrated  by  Seven  Maps.     8vo,  $5  00. 

Harper's  IMEap  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Shov/ing  the  Canals,  Rail-roads,  and  principal  Stage  Routes. 
By  Samuel  Breese,  A.M.  On  Rollers,  States  traced,  $2  00; 
States  colored,  $2  00;  States  colored  and  bordered,  |2  25; 
Counties  colored,  $2  50. 

Harper's  New  York  Class-book. 

Comprising  Outlines  of  the  Geography  and  History  of  New 
York;  Biographical  Notices  of  Eminent  Individuals;  Sketches 
of  Scenery  and  Natural  History ;  Accounts  of  Public  Institu- 
tions. Arranged  as  a  Reading-book  for  Schools.  By  William 
Russell.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

Harrison's  Latin  Grammar. 

An  Exposition  of  some  of  the  Laws  of  the  jLatm  Grammar. 
12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

Haswell's  Engineering. 

Engineers'  and  Mechanics'  Pocket-book,  containing  United 
States  and  Foreign  Weights  and  Measures ;  Tables  of  Areas 
and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  Circular  Segments,  and  Zones 
of  a  Circle;  Squares  and  Cubes,  Square  and  Cube  Roots; 
Lengths  of  Circular  and  Semi-elliptic  Arcs ;  and  Rules  of  Arith- 
metic. Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids ;  the  Mechanical 
Powers;  Geometry,  Trigonometry,  Gravity,  Strength  of  Ma- 
terials, Water  Wheels,  Hydraulics,  Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics, 
Statics,  Dynamics,  Gunnery,  Heat,  Winding  Engines,  Tonnage, 
Shot,  Shells,  (fee.  Steam  and  the  Steam  Engine ;  Combustion, 
Water,  Gunpowder,  Cables  and  Anchors,  Fuel,  idr,  Guns,  <fee., 
<fec.  Tables  of  the  Weights  of  Metals,  Pipes,  <fec.  Miscellane' 
ous  Notes,  Dimensions  of  Steamers,  Mills,  Motion  of  Bodies  in 
Fluids,  Orthography  of  Technical  Terms,  tfec,  <fec.  Eighth 
Edition  and  Eighteenth  Thousand.  With  Additions.  12mu, 
Pocket-book  forai,  $1  25. 

Hazen's  Popular  Technology; 

or.  Professions  and  Trades.  Illustrated  by  81  Engravings. 
18mo,  Half  Sheep,  75  cents;  2  vols..  Muslin,  90  cents. 


8  BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 

Henry's  History  of  Philosophy. 

Epitome  of  the  History  of  Philosophy.  Being  the  Work  adopt- 
ed  by  the  University  of  France  for  Instruction  in  the  Colleges 
and  High  Schools.  Translated  from  the  French,  with  Addi- 
tions, and  a  Continuation  of  the  History.  2  vols.  18mo,  Mus- 
lin, 90  cents. 

Hersohel's  Natural  Philosophy. 

A  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  Study  of  Natural  PhilosopTiy 
12mo,  Muslin,  60  cents. 

iiane's  Elements  of  Chemistry ; 

including  the  most  recent  Discoveries,  and  Applications  of  th« 
Science  to  Medicine  and  Pharmacy,  and  to  the  Arts.  Edited 
by  John  W.  Draper,  M.D.     "With  about  250  Woodcuts.     8vo, 

Muslin,  $1  50;  Sheep  extra,  $1  75. 

Keightley's  History  of  England, 

from  the  earliest  Period  to  1839.  With  Notes.  <fec.,  by  an 
American.     6  vols.  18mo,  Muslin,  $2  25. 

Lee's  Elements  of  Geology, 

for  Popular  Use;  containing  a  Descripcion  of  the  Geological 
Formations  and  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States.  En- 
gravings.    18mo,  Half  Sheep,  50  centa 

Lewis's  Platonic  Theology. 

Plato  contra  Atheos.  Plato  against  the  Atheists ;  or,  the  Tenth 
Book  of  the  Dialogue  on  Laws,  accompanied  with  Critical 
Notes,  and  followed  by  extended  Dissertations  on  some  of  the 
main  Points  of  the  Platonic  Philosophy  and  Theology,  espe- 
cially aa  compared  with  the  Holy  Scriptures.  12mo,  Muslin, 
$1  50. 

Liddell  and  Scott's  Greek-English  Lexicon, 

based  on  the  German  Work  of  Francis  Passow.  With  Cor- 
rections and  Additions,  and  the  Insertion,  in  Alphabetical  Or- 
der, of  the  Proper  Names  occumng  in  the  principal  Greek 
Authors,  by  Henby  Drislkr,  M.A.      Royal  8vo,  Sheep  extra, 

^5  00. 

Loomis's  Mathematical  Series. 

Elements  of  Algebra.     For  the  use  of  Beginners.     12mo,  Sheep  ex- 
tra, 62 i  cents. 

Treatise  on  Algebra.     Bvo,  Sheep  extra,  |1  00. 

Elements  of  Geometry  and  Conic  Sections.      8vo,  Sheep  extra,  T6 

cents. 

Introduction  to  Practical  Astronomy,     8vo,  Sheep  extra.     {In  press.) 

The  Recent  Progress  of  Astronomy,  especially  in  the  United  States 
12mo,  Muslin,  $1  00. 

Elements  of  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry.     8vo.  Sheer  «xtra. 

$1  00. 


BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES.  9 

Loomis's  Mathematical  Series,  continued. 

Tables  of  Logarithms  of  Numbers,  and  of  Sines  and  Tangents  for 
every  Ten  Seconds  of  the  Quadrant,     8vo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 
Jl;^*  The  Trigonometry  and  Tables,  bound  together,  may  be 
had  for  $1  50. 

Analytical  Geometry  and  Calculus.     8vo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  50. 

Lowry's  Universal  Atlas. 

Constructed  and  Engraved  from  the  most  recent  Authorities. 
Quarto,  Half  Roan,  $6  00. 

Mahan's  System  of  Intellectual  Philosophy. 

12mo,  Muslin,  90  cents. 

Mrs.  Markham's  History  of  France, 

from  the  Conquest  of  Gaul  by  Julius  Caesar  to  the  Reign  of 
Louis  Philippe.  With  Conversations  at  the  End  of  each 
Chapter.  For  the  use  of  Young  Persons.  Edited  by  Jacob 
Abbott.     12mo,  Muslin,  $1  00. 

Maury's  Principles  of  Eloquence. 

With  an  Introduction,  by  Bishop  Potteb.  18mo,  Muslin,  46 
cents. 

McClintock's  Classical  Series. 

i  First  Book  in  Latin.  Containing  Grammar  Exercises,  and  Vo- 
cabularies, on  the  Method  of  constant  Imitation  and  Repeti' 
tion.  With  Summaries  of  Etymology  and  Syntax.  12mo, 
Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

A  Second  Book  in  Latin.  Containing  Syntax,  and  Reading  Les- 
sons selected  from  Caesar  and  Cicero,  with  Imitative  Exercises, 
Notes,  and  a  full  Vocabulary.  Forming  a  sufficient  Latin 
Reader.     12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

A  First  Book  in  Greek.  Containing  a  full  View  of  the  Forms  of 
Words,  with  Vocabularies  and  copious  Exercises,  on  the  Meth- 
od of  constant  Imitation  and  Repetition.  12mo,  Sheep  extra, 
75  cents. 

A  Second  Book  in  Greek.  Containing  a  Syntax,  with  Reading  Les- 
sons in  Prose ;  Prosody,  and  Reading  Lessons  in  Verse.  Form- 
ing a  sufficient  Greek  Reader.  With  Notes  and  copious  Vo- 
cabulary.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

McQueen's  The  Orator's  Touchstone; 

or,  Eloquence  Simplified.  Embracing  a  comprehensive  System 
of  Instruction  for  the  Improvement  of  the  Voice,  and  for  ad- 
vancement in  the  general  Art  of  Public  Speaking.      12mo, 

Muslin,  75  cents. 

Mill's  Logic, 

Ratiocinative  and  Inductive ;  being  a  connected  View  of  th© 
Principles  of  Evidence  a]ijc  the  Methods  of  Scientific  Investi- 
gation.    8vo,  Muslin,  $1  m^ 


HARPER'S 
NEW  CLASSICAL  LIBRARY. 


The  want  of  a  Series  of  Litekai.  Tbahblationb  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  an- 
thers who  are  usually  studied  in  the  American  course  of  Academic  education,  has 
been  long  felt  by  the  most  intelligent  and  assiduous  classical  teachers.  That 
they  are  capable  of  being  abused  by  the  indolent  and  unfaithful  pupil  is  no  plea 
against  their  utility  wheu  employed  in  their  legitimate  place.  A  translation  of 
an  ancient  writer  into  English,  as  perfectly  literal  as  is  permitted  by  the  idioms 
of  the  respective  languages,  affords  an  invaluable  aid  to  the  instructor  in  the  ac- 
complishment of  his  arduous  task.  If  executed  with  fidelity  and  skill,  it  saves 
much  time  and  labor  in  the  consultation  of  dictionaries,  and  embodies  the  best 
results  of  philological  acumen  and  research  in  the  shortest  possible  space.  Pages 
of  learned  commentary  are  thus  concentrated  in  the  rendering  of  a  single  word. 

The  works  which  it  is  proposed  to  issue  are  reprints  from  "  Boun'b  Classical 
LiBEABT,"  brought  out  uniform  with  the  English  edition,  and  comprising  faith- 
ful translations  of  the  principal  Greek  and  Latin  classics. 

Each  work  will  be  given  without  abridgment,  and  will  include  short  suggestive 
notes,  adapted  to  the  comprehension  as  well  ns  the  actual  wants  of  the  student 
Copious  and  accurate  indices  will  be  appended  to  every  translation.  No  version 
will  be  adopted  without  ample  and  thorough  revision,  correcting  its  errors  by  the 
lights  of  modern  research,  and  placing  it  on  a  level  witli  the  present  improved 
state  of  philolo;j;ical  learning. 

This  New  Classical  Libbaby  has  received  a  cordial  welcome  from  the  whole 
corps  of  American  classical  teachers.  The  important  uses  of  such  a  work  in  their 
daily  avocations  are  too  obvious  to  require  discussion.  Nor  is  the  interest  of 
the  scries  confined  to  teachers  by  profession.  Every  reading  man,  though  desti- 
tute of  a  knowledge  of  the  ancient  languages,  feels  a  laudable  curiosity  to  form 
an  acquaintance  with  the  incomparable  models  of  literary  art  which  they  have 
preserved.  In  the  literal  translations  with  which  he  is  furnished  by  the  present 
series,  ho  will  find  the  Information  that  he  seeks,  enabling  him  to  comprehend 
current  classical  allusions  with  facility,  to  become  familiar  with  the  ti-uo  spirit 
of  the  anclenta,  and  to  share  in  conversation  and  studies  which  presuppose  a 
knowledge  of  Greek  and  Koman  antiquity. 

The  following  Volumes  are  now  ready : 

/^iESAR.     Ca^saPs  Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  and  Civil 
^^    Wars :  with  the  Supplementary  Books  attributed  to  Hirtius  ; 
inchidin^  the  Ale.xandrian,  African,  and  Spanish  Wars.    Lit- 
erally Translated,  with   Notes,  and  a  verv  copious  Index. 
Portrait.     12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents ;  Half  Calf,  $1  60. 


■r\  AVIDSON'S  VIRGIL.     The  Works  of  Virgil.     Literal- 
•*^     ly  Translated  into  En;.;lish  Prose,  with  Notes,  by  Batidsox. 

A  New  Edition,  Revised,  with  Additional  Notes,  by  Theo. 

DORE  Aloi8  Buckley,  B.A.,  of  Christ  Church.     Portrait. 

12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents;  Half  Calf,  $1  60. 


HARPER'S  NEW  CIoASSICAL  LIBRARY. 

WATSON'S  SALLUST.  Sallust,  Floms,  and  Velleius 
Paterculus.  Literally  Translated,  with  Copious  Notes  and 
General  Index.  By  the  Rev.  John  Selby  Watson,  M.A., 
Head  Master  of  the  Proprietary  Grammar  School,  Stock- 
well.    Portrait.     12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents  ;  Half  Calf,  $1  60. 

SMART'S  HORACE.     The  Works  of  Horace.     Literally 
Translated  into  English  Prose,  by  C.  Smart,  A.M.,  of  Pem- 
broke College,  Cambridge.     A  New  Edition,  Revised,  with  a 
copious  Selection  of  Notes,  by  Theodore  Alois  Buckley, 
B.A.,  of  Christ  Church.    Portrait.     12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents ; 
.    Half  Calf,  $1  60. 

YONGE'S  CICERO'S.  ORATIONS.  The  Orations  con- 
tained in  the  Text-Books  used  in  the  Schools  and  Colleges 
of  America.  Portrait.  12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents ;  Half  Calf, 
$1  60. 

EDMOND'S  CICERO'S  OFFICES.  Cicero's  Three 
Books  of  Offices  ;  or.  Moral  Duties  :  also  his  Cato  Major,  an 
Essay  on  Old  Age ;  Lselius,  an  Essay  on  Friendship ;  Para- 
doxes; Scipio's  Dream;  and  Letter  to  Quintus  on  the  Du- 
ties of  a  Magistrate.  Literally  Translated,  with  Notes,  de- 
signed to  exhibit  a  comparative  view  of  the  Opinions  of  Cice- 
ro, and  those  of  Modern  Moralists  and  Ethical  Philosophers. 
By  Cyrus  R.  Edmonds.  Portrait.  12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents ; 
Half  Calf,  $1  60. 

TACITUS.  The  Works  of  Yacitus.  The  Oxford  Trans- 
lation, Revised.  With  Notes.  Vol.  I.  The  Annals.  Vol. 
II.  The  History,  Germany,  Agricola,  and  Dialogues  on  Ora- 
tors.    2  vols.  12mo,  Muslin,  $1  50 ;  Half  Calf,  $3  20 


w 


ATSON'S  XENOPHON.  The  Anabasis,  or  Expedi- 
tion of  Cyrus,  and  the  Memorabilia  of  Socrates.  Literally 
Translated  from  the  Greek  of  Xenophon.  By  the  Rev.  J. 
S.  Watson,  M.A.,  M.R.S.L.  With  a  Geographical  Com- 
mentary, by  W.  F.  AiNswoRTH,  Esq.,  F.S.A.,  F.R.G.S., 
F.G.S.    Portrait.    12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents ;  Half  Calf,  $1  60. 


OUCKLEY'S   HOMER'S    ILIAD.     Homer's   Iliad.     Lit- 
^     erally  Translated,  with  Explanatory  Notes.     Portrait.     12ino, 
Muslin,  76  cents ;  Half  Calf,  $1  60. 


K 


HARPERS  NEW  CLASSICAL  LIBRARY. 

'ARY'S  HERODOTUS.     Herodotus.     A  New  and  Lit- 

'     eral  Version,  from  the  Text  of  Baehr.     With  a  Geographical 

and  General  Index.     By  Henry  Cauy,  M.A.,  Worcester 

College,  Oxford.     Portrait.     12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents ;  Half 

Calf,  $1  60. 

ENNEDY'S  DEMOSTHENES.  Vol.  I.  The  Olynthi- 
ac  and  other  Public  Orations  of  Demosthenes.  Vol.  II.  The 
Orations  of  Demosthenes  on  the  Crown,  and  on  the  Embas- 
sy. Translated  with  Notes,  &c.,  by  Charles  Rann  Kenne- 
dy. Portrait.  2  vols.  12mo,  Muslin,  $1  50;  Half  Calf, 
$3  20. 


D 


ALE'S  THUCYDIDES.  The  History  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War,  by  Thucydides.  A  New  and  Literal  Version, 
from  the  Text  of  Arnold,  Collated  with  Bekker,  GoUer,  and 
Poppo.  By  the  Rev.  Henry  Dale,  M.A.,  Head  Master  of 
the  New  Proprietary  School,  Blackheath,  and  late  Demy  of 
Magdalene  College,  Oxford.  Portrait.  12mo,  Muslin,  75 
cents;  Half  Calf,  $1  60. 

/pSCHYLUS.     By  an  Oxonian.     Revised  by  T.  A.  Buck- 
z^-*-'     ley.     With  an  Appendix  (not  contained  in  Bohn's  Vol- 
ume), embracing  all  of  Hermann's  Emendations,  Translated 
and  Explained  by  Burges.     12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents  ;  Half 

Calf,  $\  60. 

SOPHOCLES.  The  Tragedies  of  Sophocles ;  in  English 
Prose.  The  Oxford  Translation.  New  Edition,  revised  ac- 
cording to  the  Text  of  Dindorf.  Portrait.  12mo,  Muslin, 
75  cents;  Half  Calf,  $1  60. 

■nUCKLEY'S  EURIPIDES.     The  Tragedies  of  Euripides. 
■*^     Literally  Translated,  with  Critical  and  Explanatory'  Notes,  by 

Theodore  Alois  Buckley,  of  Christ  Church.      Portrait. 

2  vols.  12mo,  Muslin,  $1  50 ;  Half  Calf,  $3  20. 

TTie  Volumes  of  Habpbr's  New  Classical  Library  may  be  had 
separately y  if  desired. 


IlAsrEB  &  BRornxKS  will  send  cither  of  the  above  Works  by  Mail,  postage 
paid  (for  any  distance  in  the  United  States  under  3000  miles),  on  receipt  of  the 

Money. 


•,•  For  a  full  List  of  Classical  Works,  sec  IIabpeb  &  BEOTirKBS'  Catalogue  of 
their  Publications,  Copies  of  which  may  bcrobtained  gratuitously  on  application 
to  the  Publishers,  personally,  or  by  letter  incloRlng  Six  Cents  in  Postage  Stamps. 


^arper'0  Olatologuc. 


A  New  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  Hahpek  &  BrothbrsC 
Publications,  with  an  Index  and  Classified  Table  of  Contents,  is 
ilow  ready  for  Distribution,  and  may  be  obtained  gratuitously  on 
application  to  the  Publishers  personally,  or  by  letter  inclosing  Six 
Cents  in  Postage  Stamps. 

The  attention  of  gentlemen,  in  town  or  countiy,  designing  to  form 
Libraries  or  enrich  their  Literary  Collections,  is  respectfully  invited 
to  this  Catalogue,  which  will  be  found  to  comprise  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  standard  and  most  esteemed  works  in  English  Literature 
— comprehending  more  than  two  thousand  volumes  —  which 
Are  offered,  in  most  instances,  at  less  than  one  half  the  cost  of  sim- 
flar  productions  in  England. 

To  Librarians  and  others  connected  with  Colleges,  Schools,  &c., 
♦«rho  may  not  have  access  to  a  reliable  guide  in  forming  the  true 
estimate  of  literary  productions,  it  is  believed  this  Catalogue  will 
prove  especially  valuable  as  a  manual  of  reference. 

To  prevent  disappointment,  it  is  suggested  that,  whenever  books 
can  not  be  obtained  through  any  bookseller  or  local  agent,  applica- 
tions with  remittance  should  be  addressed  direct  to  the  Publishers, 
which  will  be  promptly  attended  to. 


-f* 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 
University  of  California  Library 
or  to  the 
NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
BIdg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

•  2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 
(510)642-6753 

•  1-year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing 
books  to  NRLF 

•  Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4 
days  prior  to  due  date. 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 

DEC  2  3  1998 


0 


ZOGT 


12,000(11/95) 


^B  36964 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


